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THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
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RANGE  AND   PASTURE 
MANAGEMENT 


WORKS  OF  ARTHUR  W.  SAMPSON 

PUBLISHED   BY 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS,  Inc. 


Range  and  Pasture  Management. 

Provides  systematic  instruction  for  those  who  de- 
sire a  practical  working  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
as  well  as  for  those  who  wish  to  follow  technical 
grazing  work  as  a  profession,  vii  +  421  pages.  6 
by  9.  129  figures,  including  plate  showing  main 
stock-poisoning  plants  in  their  natural  colors. 
Cloth,  $4.00  net. 

Livestock  Husbandry  on  Range  and  Pasture. 

A  discussion  of  the  management  of  range  and  pas- 
ture livestock.    In  Preparation. 

Native  American  Forage  Plants. 

Treats  in  detail  all  important  native  forage  grasses 
and  broad-leaved  plants.     In  Preparation. 


RANGE  AND  PASTURE 
MANAGEMENT 


BY 

ARTHUR  W.  SAMPSON,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

Associate  Professor  of  Range  Management  and  Forest  Ecology 
University  of  California 

Formerly  Plant  Ecologist,  United  States  Forest  Service,  and 
Director,  Great  Basin  Experiment  Station 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN  Wn.EY  &  SONS,  Inc. 

London:  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited 
1923 


s^ 


Copyright,  1923, 

BY 

ARTHUR  W.  SAMPSON 


Stanbope  press 

TECHNICAL  COMPOSITION  COMPANY 


LIBRAMY 

N.  C.  State  College 


iWp  Jfatijer 

HAS   FOR  YEARS   BEEN   INTIMATELY  ASSOCIATED   WITH 

PROBLEMS   OF   LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

IN  THE  MIDDLE   WESTERN  UNITED   STATES 

AND 

BY  HIS  PRACTICAL  SENSE  AND  CLEAR  JUDGMENT 

HAS   BEEN   NOT   ONLY   MEASURABLY   SUCCESSFUL   HIMSELF 

BUT   HELPFUL   TO    OTHER    STOCKMEN   IN   HIS    LOCALITY 

Co  Wm 

IN   RECOGNITION   OF   HIS   ACHIEVEMENTS 

AND 

IN    GRATEFUL   APPRECIATION   OF 

HIS   PERSONAL   INTEREST   AND   PATERNAL   INSPIRATION 

THIS    BOOK    IS 

AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED 


12043 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  three-fold.  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  nearly  everywhere  in  this  country  today  the  solution  of 
pasture  problems  is  urgently  pressing,  it  is  hoped  the  book  may 
encourage  agricultural  colleges  to  include  courses  in  pasture  and 
range  management  in  their  curricula.  It  aims,  also,  to  assist,  if 
only  in  a  sm.all  way,  in  the  solution  of  the  local  pasture  problems 
of  those  who  have  not  had  an  opportunity  to  attend  college. 
Chiefly,  the  book  is  intended  to  provide  systematic  instruction 
for  those  who  desire  a  practical  working  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject, as  well  as  for  those  who  wish  to  follow  technical  grazing 
work  as  a  profession  and  fit  themselves  to  hold  such  positions 
as  those  offered  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service.  Among 
these,  students  of  professional  forestry  are  quite  as  much  in 
need  of  general  training  in  this  subject  as  are  students  of  general 
agriculture. 

The  absolute  essentials  of  living  are  supplied  by  four  basic 
industries  —  farming,  livestock  production,  forestry,  and  mining. 
All  other  business  enterprises,  broadly  considered,  are  merely  the 
result  of  the  four  basic  industries.  Approximately  one-third  of 
the  cost  of  eating  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  cost  of  living  are 
expended  upon  meats  and  the  by-products  of  the  livestock 
industry —  leather,  wool,  fats,  and  other  such  commodities. 

For  the  attainment  of  success,  no  business  is  more  dependent 
upon  the  broad  application  of  the  sciences  than  is  that  of  pro- 
ducing livestock  on  range  and  pasture.  Unfortunately,  many 
persons  are  skeptical  regarding  the  application  of  scientific 
principles  to  their  agricultural  operations,  and  are  inclined  to 
distinguish  between  what  they  term  "  practical "  and  what 
they  call  "  scientific."  Today,  with  a  tendency  toward  the 
narrowing  of  the  margin  of  profits  in  the  production  of  pasture 
livestock,  the  use  of  "  extended  and  systematized  common- 
sense,"  as  one  careful  thinker  defines  science,  is  essential  to 


vi  PREFACE 

success.  The  happy-go-lucky  range  ventures  characteristic  of 
the  West  in  the  early  days  have  been  largely  supplanted  by  or- 
derly, business-like  methods.  Even  so,  stockmen  generally 
throughout  this  country  are  not  receiving  maximum  returns 
from  the  livestock  industry.  Evidently  this  is  due  more  to 
overstocking  during  the  free-for-all  grazing  period,  which 
continued  for  so  long  a  tune  in  the  far  West,  than  to  con- 
spicuously destructive  grazing  during  the  last  decade.  The 
momentous  results  of  range  improvement  achieved  on  the 
National  Forests  have  proved  beyond  doubt  the  wisdom  of 
cropping  the  forage  on  the  basis  of  a  sustained  annual  yield 
instead  of  overgrazing  the  pasture  lands  and  taking  chances 
of  disastrous  losses  from  poisonous  plants  and  the  caprice  of 
the  elements. 

There  remains  now  the  big  economic  problem  of  revegetating 
the  pasture  and  of  maintaining  such  a  nutritious  forage  cover 
as  will  be  consistent  with  a  maximum  use  of  the  lands.  For  the 
accomplishment  of  this,  three  things  are  necessary.  There 
should  be  maintained  at  all  times  an  effective  plant  cover  which 
will  bind  the  soil  firmly  and  so  preserve  it  against  erosion  and 
other  destructive  agencies.  It  is  also  necessary  to  determine 
which  are  the  most  important  forage  plants,  as  well  as  the 
objectionable  pasture  species,  and  how  the  desirable  forage 
types  may  most  expediently  be  improved.  Furthermore,  the 
foraging  animals  should  be  handled  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure 
the  largest  percentage  of  offspring  and  of  marketable  stock 
consistent  with  economical  production. 

After  fifteen  years  of  intensive  pasture  investigations  in  the 
United  States  Forest  Service,  it  was  the  author's  good  fortune 
to  be  called  to  the  combined  fields  of  instructional  and  investi- 
gative work  in  range,  pasture,  and  Hvestock  management.  This 
congenial  combination  was  of  great  assistance  in  the  develop- 
ment of  what  he  believes  to  be  a  logical  division  and  treatment 
of  so  broad  a  subject.  The  present  work  deals  chiefly  with 
the  practical  care  and  management  of  range  and  pasture  lands 
in  this  country.  It  discusses  the  character  of  pasture  lands 
and  the  history  of  grazing  control;    the  reseeding  of  the  range; 


PREFACE  vii 

the  recognition  of  the  early  stages  of  pasture-forage  decline; 
the  leading  introduced  forage  plants  and  their  culture;  the 
adequate  protection  of  timber  reproduction  against  grazing  on 
potential  timberlands;  the  burning  of  pasture  lands  and  its 
effect  on  forage  yields;  the  poisonous-plant  menace  and  its  con- 
trol; forage  estimates  and  grazing  capacity;  methods  of  study- 
ing revegetational  problems;  and,  finally,  the  educational 
phase,  which  embraces  suggestions  for  instruction  in  pasture 
management  and  livestock  production. 

It  is  hoped  that  students  of  pasture  management  will  avail 
themselves  of  the  literature  referred  to  in  the  discussion  of  the 
subject  and  at  the  end  of  the  chapters.  Although  reluctant  to 
do  so,  the  author  has  been  forced  to  cite  his  own  writings  some- 
what freely,  because,  the  critical  study  of  range  management 
having  been  so  recently  begun,  only  a  small  amount  of  literature 
bearing  directly  upon  the  development  of  the  subject  has  been 
produced. 

Among  the  most  valuable  features  of  the  book  are  its  nu- 
merous illustrations,  nearly  all  of  which  are  original.  The 
plate  showing  the  main  stock-poisoning  plants  in  their  natural 
colors  should  prove  especially  helpful  to  stockmen  as  well  as 
to  students  in  the  classroom. 

The  author  takes  this  opportunity  to  express  his  gratitude  to 
Mr.  William  A.  Dayton,  of  the  Forest  Service,  and  others 
who  have  rendered  valuable  assistance  by  reading  and  criti- 
cizing portions  of  the  manuscript.  Grateful  acknowledgment 
is  made  especially  to  Mr.  Arthur  Charles  Watkins,  of  the 
Forest  Service,  who  has  critically  read  both  the  manuscript 
and  proofs,  and  to  Mrs.  A.  E.  Hoyle,  who  has  prepared  most 
of  the  pen  and  ink  illustrations. 

Companion  volumes  entitled  "  Native  American  Forage 
Plants"  and  "Livestock  Husbandry  on  Range  and  Pasture" 
are  expected  to  appear  in  the  near  future. 


ARTHUR  W.  SAMPSON. 


The  University  of  California, 
May,  1923. 


CONTENTS 


PART  ONE 
THE  GRAZING  INDUSTRY  AND  RANGE  CONTROL 

CHAPTER  I 

PASTURE  LANDS  AND   GRAZING   CONTROL  IN  THE 
UNITED   STATES 

PAGE 

Pasture  Lands 4 

Range  and  Pasture  Lands 4 

Forage-Crop  Areas 5 

The  Great  Plains 5 

The  Great  Basin 6 

The  Southwest 8 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Region 8 

Grazing  Control 9 

Influence  of  the  Settler 9 

Cause  and  Effect  of  Overgrazing 10 

Range  Wars 12 

Questions 15 

Bibhography 16 

CHAPTER  II 
NATIONAL  FOREST,   STATE,   AND   PRIVATE   GRAZING  LANDS 

The  National  Forests 17 

Object  of  Creating  the  National  Forests 17 

Livestock  on  the  National  Forests 18 

National  Forest  Grazing  Policy 25 

The  Stockmen's  Protest 26 

Government  Rules  and  Regulations 27 

Results  of  Regulated  Grazing 28 

State  and  Private  Lands 30 

The  Texas  Leasing  System 30 

The  Wyoming  Leasing  System 31 

The  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  Leases 31 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Benefits  of  the  Leasing  System 32 

Improvement  of  the  Pastures ss 

Increased  Profits 34 

Questions 35 

Bibliography ., 36 


^/ 


'ART   TWO 
PASTURE  REVEGETATION  AND  FORAGE  MAINTENANCE 

CHAPTER  III 

RESEEDING  WESTERN   GRAZING  LANDS  TO   CULTIVATED 
FORAGE   PLANTS 

Plant  Introduction  on  Arid  Lands 40 

Tests  in  Southern  Arizona 40 

Seeding  Tests  in  Northern  Arizona 41 

Plant  Introduction  on  Mountain  or  Semi-Humid  Lands 42 

Grasses 43 

Broad-leaved  Herbs 44 

Conditions  of  the  Experiments 44 

Results  of  the  Tests 45 

Success  of  the  Various  Species 45 

Season  for  Sowing . , 47 

Causes  of  Failure 48 

Suitable  Cultural  Implements 48 

Scattering  the  Seed 5° 

Elevational  Limitations  of  Reseeding 50 

What  Grasses  to  Sow 52 

Amount  to  Sow  and  Cost  of  Seeding 52 

Moisture  Requirements  of  Cultivated  Forage  Plants 53 

Seeding  to  a  Mixture 54 

How  to  Graze  Newly  Seeded  Lands 55 

Where  Seeding  Will  Pay 55 

Reseeding  to  Native  Forage  Plants 56 

Questions 58 

Bibliography 58 

CHAPTER  IV 

NATURAL   RESEEDING   AND    MAINTENANCE    OF   NATIVE 
WESTERN   PASTURE   LANDS 

Migrations  of  Buffaloes  Suggest  Revegetation  Plan 61 

Cost  of  Overgrazing 61 

Requirements  of  Plant  Growth 62 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

Forage  Production  in  Early  Spring 62 

Seed  Production 66 

Scattering  and  Planting  the  Seed 67 

Loss  of  Seedling  Plants  from  Natural  Agencies 67 

Destruction  of  Seedlings  by  Grazing 67 

Grazing  Systems  and  Forage  Production 72 

Yearlong  Grazing 72 

Revegetation  by  Yearlong  Protection  of  Pastures 73 

Deferred  Grazing 74 

Palatability  of  Mature  Forage 75 

Advantages  of  Deferred  Grazing 76 

Application  of  Deferred  Grazing 78 

Area  to  be  Reserved 78 

General  Directions 78 

A  Specific  Case 79 

Deferred  Grazing  on  Range  of  "Winter  Annuals" 80 

Reseeding  Complications 81 

Practical  Suggestions 83 

Questions 83 

Bibliography 84 


CHAPTER   V 

IMPROVEMENT   AND    MANAGEMENT  OF   FARM   PASTURES 

What  is  Good  Pasture? 87 

Kinds  of  Pasture 88 

Annual  Pasture 88 

Temporary  Pasture 88 

Permanent  Pasture 88 

Why  Pastures  "Run  Out" 88 

Natural  Succession 89 

Abnormal  Changes  in  Autumn  or  Winter  Weather 89 

Drought 89 

Faulty  Methods  of  Grazing 89 

Growth  Forms  of  Pasture  and  Hay  Plants 89 

How  the  Farmer  May  Improve  the  Pasture 90 

Management  of  Bluegrass  Pastures 93 

Alternate  versus  Continuous  Grazing 94 

Disking  and  Harrowing 95 

Light  versus  Heav}^  Grazing 95 

Management  of  Nonsod  Pastures 96 

Number  of  Stock  to  Graze 96 

Deferred  Grazing 97 


Xii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Fertilizers  for  Pasture  and  Grassland 98 

Kinds  of  Fertilizers  and  Amounts  to  Apply 99 

The  Eternal  Battle  with  Weeds 100 

Questions 102 

Bibliography 103 

CHAPTER  VI 
RECOGNIZING  AND   CORRECTING  A  DECLINING  FORAGE  YIELD 

How  Destructive  Grazing  May  Be  Recognized 104 

Old  or  Empirical  Method 104 

New  or  Scientific  Method 105 

Conspicuous  Signs  of  Overgrazing 106 

Indicators  of  Slight  Departures  in  Grazing  Capacity 107 

Type  Stages  of  Indicator  Plants 107 

Climax  Herbaceous  Stage 108 

Destruction  of  the  Wheatgrass  Cover 108 

Forage  Production in 

Mixed  Grass  and  Weed  Stage in 

Destruction  of  the  Porcupinegrass-Yellowbrush  Cover 113 

Forage  Production 113 

Second  or  Late  Weed  Stage 113 

Destruction  of  the  Foxglove-Sweet  Sage- Yarrow  Cover 114 

Forage  Production 115 

First  or  Early  Weed  Stage 115 

Forage  Production 115 

Effect  of  Grazing  on  the  Development  of  Vegetation 117 

Vegetation  on  Driveways  and  Bed  Grounds 119 

Revegetation  of  Bed  Grounds 120 

Revegetation  of  Lands  Grazed  Each  Year  before  Seed  Maturity 

as  Compared  with  That  of  Yearlong  Protected  Areas. .  .  124 

Use  of  Indicator  Plants 127 

How  to  Recognize  Pasture  Improvement  or  Depletion 127 

Reliable  Indicator  Plants 128 

Questions 130 

Bibliography 131 

CHAPTER  VII 

PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED   FORAGE   GRASSES 

Classification  of  Cultivated  Plants 132 

Kentucky  Bluegrass 132 

Canada  Bluegrass i35 

Bermudagrass I35 


CONTENTS  Xlil 

PAGE 

Hungarian  Bromegrass , 137 

Redtop 139 

Timothy 140 

Orchardgrass 142 

The  Ryegrasses , 143 

Johnsongrass 144 

Sudangrass 144 

Tall  Oatgrass 146 

Meadow  Fescue 147 

Grass  Mixtures 148 

Mixtures  for  Temporary  Pasture 148 

Mixtures  for  Permanent  Pasture 148 

Questions 149 

Bibliography 149 

CHAPTER   Vni 

PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED   NONGRASSLIKE  FORAGE  HERBS 

The  Clovers 152 

Alsike  or  Swedish  Clover 152 

White  Clover 153 

Sweet  Clover 155 

Bur  Clovers 155 

Alfalfa,  or  Lucerne 157 

Cowpeas 158 

Soybeans 159 

Vetches 159 

Velvet  Bean 16:; 

Japan  Clover 164 

Good  Germination  and  Purity  of  Seed  Essential 164 

Questions 166 

Bibliography 166 


PART  THREE 
RANGE   AND   PASTURE  PROTECTION 

CHAPTER   IX 

CONTROL   OF   EROSION    ON   RANGE    AND   PASTURE 

Migration  of  Rainfall 171 

Damage  by  Erosion 172 

Kinds  of  Erosion 175 

Gully  Erosion 176 


XIV  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Sheet  Erosion 176 

Landslides 176 

River-Bottom  Erosion 176 

Factors  Influencing  Erosion 177 

Steepness  of  Slope 177 

Type  of  Soil 178 

Texture 178 

Structure 178 

Organic  Matter 178 

Pore  Space 178 

Tenacity 178 

Rainfall 179 

Melting  Snow 180 

Wind 181 

Vegetative  Cover 182 

Erosion,  Plant  Growth,  and  Revegetation 182 

Erosion  and  Plant  Growth 184 

Erosion  and  Revegetation 189 

The  Solution  of  the  Erosion  Problem  on  Pasture  Lands 191 

Avoidance  of  Overgrazing 191 

Avoidance  of  Too  Early  Grazing 191 

The  Practice  of  Deferred  and  Rotation  Grazing 192 

The  Control  and  Distribution  of  Livestock 192 

Terracing  and  Planting 192 

How  More  Than  Half  of  the  Erosion  Battle  is  Won 194 

Questions 194 

Bibliography 195 

CHAPTER  X 

GRAZING   ON   WOODLANDS   AND   ITS  RELATION   TO 
THE   FUTURE   TIMBER   SUPPLY 

Results  of  Investigations 198 

Studies  in  Northern  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington 198 

Studies  in  Idaho 200 

Extent  of  Injury 200 

Comparative  Seasonal  Injury 201 

Damage  According  to  Intensity  of  Grazing  and  Amount  of 

Forage 201 

Studies  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico 202 

Average  Injury  to  Reproduction 202 

Season  of  Injury 202 

Injury  in  Relation  to  Intensity  of  Grazing  and  Character  and 

Abundance  of  Forage 203 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGE 

Effect  of  Grazing  upon  Aspen  Reproduction 205 

Effects  of  Sheep  Browsing 206 

Effects  of  Cattle  Browsing 206 

Grazing  Farm  Woodland 208 

Damage  Done  to  Tree  Growth  by  Grazing 209 

Effect  of  Goat  Grazing  on  Timber  Reproduction 210 

Conclusions  Based  on  Investigations 211 

Conclusions  of  General  Application 211 

Conclusions  of  Regional  Application 212 

Application  of  Studies  to  Grazing  Management 213 

Questions 213 

Bibliography 214 

CHAPTER  XI 

BURNING   OF  PASTURE   LANDS  AND   ITS  EFFECTS  ON 
FORAGE   PRODUCTION 

History  of  Burning 216 

Present-Day  Burning 219 

A  Common  Delusion 219 

Effects  of  Burning  on  Forage  Production 221 

Effect  of  Burning  Grasslands 222 

Burning  in  the  East,  Middle  West,  and  Far  West 222 

Burning  in  the  South 223 

Effect  of  Burning  Brushlands 225 

Goats  as  Brush  Destroyers 227 

Effect  of  Burning  Wooded  Pastures  and  Forested  Ranges 228 

Grazing  and  Fire  Control 230 

Surface  Fire 233 

Ground  Fire 233 

Crown  Fire 234 

Proper  Control  of  Grazing  Essential 235 

Summary  and  Conclusions 236 

Questions 238 

Bibliography 239 

CHAPTER  XII 

STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CONTROL 

What  is  Poison? 242 

Important  Families  of  Poisonous  Plants 242 

Palatability  of  Poisonous  Plants 243 

Range  Use  and  Variation  in  Poisonous  Substances  of  Plants 244 


XVI  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Proper  Salting  of  Stock 245 

Eradicating  Poisonous  Plants 246 

Driving  and  Herding  Stock 247 

Questions 248 


CHAPTER  Xlll 
PRINCIPAL   STOCK- POISONING  PLANTS 

Loco  Plants  {Oxylropis  and  Astragalus) 250 

Distribution  and  Habitat 250 

Losses  of  Stock  and  Animals  Poisoned 252 

Symptoms  of  Poisoning 252 

Remedies 253 

Control  and  Prevention  of  Losses 254 

Larkspurs  {Delphinium) 255 

Distribution  and  Habitat 255 

Losses  of  Stock  and  Animals  Poisoned 256 

Poisonous  Parts  of  Plant 257 

Amount  Required  to  Cause  Death 257 

Symptoms  of  Poisoning 257 

Remedies 258 

Control  and  Prevention  of  Losses 259 

Death  Camas  (Zygadenus) 261 

Distribution  and  Habitat 261 

Poisonous  Species 261 

Losses  of  Stock  and  Animals  Poisoned 262 

Poisonous  Parts  of  Plant 262 

Amount  Required  to  Cause  Death 263 

Symptoms  of  Poisoning 263 

Remedies 263 

Water  Hemlock  (Cicuta) 264 

Distribution  and  Habitat 264 

Losses  of  Stock  and  Animals  Poisoned 265 

Poisonous  Parts  of  Plant 265 

Symptoms  of  Poisoning 265 

Remedies 266 

Control  and  Prevention  of  Losses 266 

Lupines  (Lupinus) 266 

Distribution  and  Habitat 266 

Losses  of  Stock  and  Animals  Poisoned 267 

Poisonous  Parts  of  Plant ■ 267 

Amount  Required  to  Cause  Death 268 

Symptoms  of  Poisoning 268 


CONTENTS  XVU 

PAGE 

Remedies 269 

Control  and  Prevention  of  Losses 269 

Summary  of  Symptoms  and  Treatment  of  Stock  Poisoned  by  Princi- 
pal Toxic  Plants 269 

Questions 270 

CHAPTER  XIV 

POISONOUS   AND    MECHANICALLY   INJURIOUS   PLANTS   OF 
SECONDARY   OR  LOCAL  IMPORTANCE 

Poisonous  Plants 272 

MUkweeds  (Asdepias) 272 

Oak  (Quercus) 273 

"Laurels"  (Ericaceae) 273 

Woody  Aster  (Xylonhiza  Parryi) 275 

Colorado  Rubberweed,  or  Pingue  {Hymenoxys  jioribunda) 276 

Western  Sneeze  weed  (Helenium  Hoopesii) 277 

Aconite  (Aconitiim  Columbianum) 279 

Wild  or  Choke  Cherry  {Primus  demissa) 279 

Fern  {Pteridium) 279 

Ergot  {Claviceps  purpurea) 281 

Fly  Agaric,  or  Fly  Amanita  {Amanita  muscaria) 283 

Death  Cup,  or  Deadly  Amanita  {Amanita  phalloides) 283 

Mechanically  Injurious  Plants 284 

Bromegrasses 286 

Barley  and  Squirreltail  Grasses 286 

Needlegrasses 288 

Three-awn 288 

Gramagrass 289 

Questions 289 

Bibliography 289 


PART   FOUR 
PASTURE  IMPROVEMENTS  AND  RESEARCH  METHODS 

CHAPTER  XV 

DEVELOPMENT   OF  WATERING  PLACES  FOR  RANGE 
AND   PASTURE   STOCK 

Availability  of  Water 295 

Water  Requirements  of  Livestock 296 

Distribution  of  Water 296 

Natural  Watering  Places 298 


XVm  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Springs 298 

Seeps ; 298 

Swamps 299 

Location  of  Troughs 299 

Kinds  of  Troughs 300 

Log  Troughs 300 

Other  Wooden  Troughs 300 

Metal,  Cement,  and  Other  Troughs. 301 

Trough  Foundation 301 

Artificial  Watering  Places 302 

Reservoirs 302 

Wells v..  304 

Questions 305 

BibUography 306 

CHAPTER  XVI 

FORAGE  ESTIMATES  AS  A  BASIS   FOR   THE   RATIONAL   USE   OF 
GRAZING   RESOURCES    (GRAZING   RECONNAISSANCE) 

Grazing  Reconnaissance 307 

Object  of  Grazing  Reconnaissance 308 

History  of  Grazing  Reconnaissance 309 

Data  and  Facts  Obtained  by  Grazing  Reconnaissance 311 

Methods  Employed  in  Obtaining  the  Data:  Field  Work 318 

Gridiron  Method 318 

Traverse-Sketching  Method 319 

Triangulation  Method 320 

Office  Work 320 

Grazing  and  Timber  Reconnaissance  Compared 321 

Application  of  Grazing-Reconnaissance  Data  to  Practical  Pas- 
ture Management 32$ 

Accuracy  and  Limitations  of  Grazing  Reconnaissance 32$ 

The  Forage  Acre  and  How  it  is  Derived 325 

Comparative  Value  of  a  Forage  Acre  of  Different  Types 326 

Questions 327 

Bibliography 327 

CHAPTER  XVH 
GRAZING   CAPACITY  AND   PASTURE  INSPECTION 

Grazing  Capacity 328 

Basis  for  Estimating  Grazing  Capacity 328 

Grazing  Capacity  of  Ranges  and  Farm  Pastures 330 

Acreage  Required  for  Cattle 33^ 


CONTENTS  XIX 

PAGE 

Acreage  Required  for  Sheep 333 

Pasture  Inspection 333 

Inspection  of  Range  and  Farm  Pasture 333 

Questions 33^ 

Bibliography 337 

CHAPTER   XVIII 

RESEARCH   METHODS   IN   RANGE   AND   PASTURE 
RE VEGETATION 

Permanent  Sample  Plots 340 

Kinds  of  Plots  and  Their  Establishment 340 

Chart  Plot 34i 

Mapping  Chart  Plot 342 

The  Pantograph  for  Mapping  Chart  Plots 345 

List  Plot 347 

Denuded  or  Depopulated  Plots 349 

Other  Plots 35i 

Special  Sample-Plot  Guide  Tapes 351 

Season  and  Frequency  of  Mapping 354 

Protection  Plots 355 

Sample-Plot  Dimensions 356 

Questions 358 

Bibhography 359 

CHAPTER  XIX 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  PASTURE  MANAGEMENT 
AND   LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

Outline  of  Grazing  Course 364 

General  Instruction  in  Grazing 389 

Schools  for  Professional  Training  in  Grazing 39° 

Bibliography 39i 

INDEX 393 


PART  ONE 
THE  GRAZING  INDUSTRY  AND  RANGE  CONTROL 


RANGE  AND   PASTURE 
MANAGEMENT 


CHAPTER   I 

PASTURE    LANDS    AND    GRAZING    CONTROL    IN    THE 
UNITED   STATES 

The  grazing  animals  of  the  ranches  and  farms  may  well  be 
regarded  as  living  factories  that  are  continuously  manufacturing 
flesh,  leather,  wool,  mohair,  motive  power,  and  numerous  other 
valuable  products  for  the  benefit  of  man.  The  machinery  of 
this  vast  factory  is  run  by  "  vegetational  fuel,"  which,  in  general, 
can  not  be  directly  utilized  as  food  by  man.  Having  this  pro- 
digious livestock  manufactory,  we  do  not,  hke  Nebuchadnezzar 
of  old,  have  to  subsist  on  grass  ourselves;  but  we  do  eat  it 
by  proxy,  for  meat  constitutes  no  unimportant  part  of  our 
diet.  The  meat-eating  habit  will  doubtless  continue  as  long  as 
eating  remains  necessary.  Substitutes  for  meat  are  not  popular 
and  probably  never  will  be. 

The  cellular  structure  of  he  body  is  composed  largely  of 
nitrogenous  materials;  hence  foods  containing  an  ample  supply 
of  nitrogen  are  an  essential  part  of  the  diet.  Meats  are  espe- 
cially rich  in  nitrogenous  substances,  and  in  a  form  much  more 
readily  digested  than  the  forms  in  which  nitrogen  is  contained 
in  cereals  and  vegetables.  In  the  latter,  as  in  string  beans  and 
other  vegetable  substitutes  for  meat,  the  nitrogenous  materials 
are  tied  up  to  such  an  extent  in  cellulose,  an  indigestible  sub- 
stance, that  the  tissues  of  the  body  cannot  be  suppHed  with  the 
nitrogen  needed.  Meat,  therefore,  forms  an  important  part  of 
the  diet  of  all  advanced  nations. 

3 


4  PASTURE   LANDS   AND   GRAZING   CONTROL 

PASTURE  LANDS 

Range  and  Pasture  Lands.  —  Of  the  various  classes  of  public 
lands,  those  at  present  used  for  grazing  are  by  far  the  most 
extensive.  From  the  looth  meridian  west  to  the  Pacific,  in- 
cluding the  National  Forests,  Indian  Reservations,  and  National 
Parks,  there  remained  in  1920  approximately  375.000,000  acres  of 
public  domain.  For  this  vast  area  one  of  the  most  important 
economic  uses  is  the  grazing  of  livestock.  It  is  not  probable  that 
any  considerable  proportion  of  these  grazing  lands  can  be  irri- 
gated with  the  present  supply  of  water;  and,  even  if  this  were 
possible,  the  cHmatic  conditions  do  not,  in  most  localities,  favor 
the  production  of  farm  crops. 

The  total  land  area  of  the  United  States  is  1,903,269,000  acres, 
of  which  878,789,000  acres  is  classed  as  "  productive,"  but  of 
which  only  293,794,000  acres,  or  15.4  per  cent  of  the  total  area, 
is  cultivated  land.^  The  remaining  584,995,000  acres  of  pro- 
ductive land  consists  either  of  natural  meadows  and  pastures, 
or  of  forests  or  woodlots,  or  is  otherwise  unimproved.  Prac- 
tically 65  per  cent  of  this  unimproved  land  lies  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  The  major  part  of  the  timbered  lands  has 
been  cut  over,  or  else  the  stand  of  trees  is  so  sparse  as  to  sup- 
port a  more  or  less  luxuriant,  succulent,  and  nutritious  under- 
growth, the  accessible  portion  of  which  is  grazed  annually.  East 
of  the  Mississippi,  a  large  part  of  the  160,000,000  acres  of  un- 
improved farm  land  remaining  in  1920  is  in  woodlot,  a  consid- 
erable proportion  of  which  is  not  at  present  grazed,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  these  land  produce  an  abundance  of 
palatable  forage.  Of  the  unimproved  farm  land  of  the  entire 
country,  however,  it  is  conservatively  estimated  that  not  less 
than  350,000,000  acres  are  annually  used  for  grazing  purposes. 

All  told,  then,  the  acreage  of  land  upon  which  our  livestock  is 
grazed  is  considerably  greater  than  that  which  may  be  classed 
as  improved  farm  property.  The  economic  importance  of  the 
grazing  lands,  as  well  as  of  the  livestock  industry,  is  apparent 
from   the   figures  given.     The  judicious  utiUzation  and  man- 

*  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Yearbook,  1920,  p.  834. 


THE   GREAT  PLAINS  5 

agement  of  the  public  and  private  lands,  upon  which  the  future 
of  the  Hvestock  industry  depends,  is  an  economic  problem  of 
tremendous  importance. 

FORAGE-CROP  AREAS 

Rainfall  and  temperature  probably  determine,  more  than 
any  of  the  other  important  factors,  the  luxuriance  of  growth 
of  forage  plants,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  their  requirements  for 
moisture  and  heat  determine  their  suitability  to  a  given  region. 
The  following  discussion  deals  briefly  with  the  conditions  and 
limitations  of  our  forage-producing  areas,  with  special  reference 
to  the  region  which  now  provides  the  greater  part  of  the  native 
forage  crop. 

The  region  in  which  timothy  hay,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
Bermudagrass,  on  the  other,  are  grown  commercially  represents 
in  general  the  tract  where  cultivated  forage  and  fodder  plants 
are  largely  rehed  upon  to  furnish  the  hay  and  pasture  crops. 
The  timothy  area  extends  from  New  England  to  the  southern 
boundary  of  Virginia  and  west  through  Minnesota  and  eastern 
Kansas,  falling  a  Httle  short  of  the  looth  meridian.  The  Ber- 
mudagrass area,  on  the  other  hand,  occupies  the  warmer  southern 
region  —  the  true  cotton  belt  —  and  extends  west  to  include 
eastern  Texas.  In  general,  the  timothy-Bermudagrass  ex- 
panse represents  the  "  humid  region,"  and  thus  embraces  prac- 
tically none  of  the  native  (arid)  pasture  type.  There  are  other 
isolated  and  restricted  humid  areas  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  where  cultivated  crops  are  successfully  grown, 
but  they  are  insignificant  in  extent  as  compared  with  those 
mentioned. 

The  native  range  lands  lie  almost  entirely  west  of  the  looth 
meridian  and  comprise  the  vast  arid  region.  On  the  basis  of 
the  physical  and  climatic  conditions,  this  extensive  area  may  be 
divided  into  five  well-defined  regions  —  the  Great  Plains,  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  the  Great  Basin,  the  Southwest,  and 
the  Pacific  coast. 

The  Great  Plains.  —  This  region,  including  the  western  por- 
tion of  North  and  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma, 


6  PASTURE  LANDS  AND   GRAZING  CONTROL 

and  the  eastern  part  of  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Montana,  com- 
prises all  the  territory  from  the  looth  meridian  west  to  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  general,  the  Great  Plains 
region  is  comparatively  level,  with  the  northwestern  part  sloping 
northward  and  the  remainder  inchning  gently  to  the  east. 
Although  dry  farming  is  increasing  in  extent  in  many  parts,  and 
irrigation  agriculture  is  carried  on  in  a  limited  way,  the  chief 
industry  is  livestock  production.  Failure  of  cultivated  crops  is 
not  uncommon  in  this  region,  because  of  limited  rainfall  coupled 
with  high  normal  summer  temperatures,  low  air  humidity,  the 
prevalence  of  drying  winds,  and  high  evaporation.  Except  on 
the  eastern  border  of  the  Great  Plains,  the  normal  annual  rainfall 
averages  less  than  20  inches,  with  an  annual  variation  from  11 
to  :^s  inches. 

The  adverse  climatic  conditions,  sometimes  causing  com- 
plete failure  of  agricultural  crops,  tend  only  to  decrease,  for  the 
time  being,  the  yield  of  the  hardy,  well -adapted  native  vege- 
tation, such  as  the  buffalograss-gramagrass  association  ("  short- 
grass  "  type),  three-awn  grasses,  needlegrasses,  the  muhlen- 
^/bergias,  and  sagebrush.  The  soil  generally  is  rich  and  the 
grazing  excellent.  In  many  localities  the  ranges  are  not  fully 
stocked,  however,  because  of  the  distance  between  watering 
places.  The  water,  supplied  as  it  is  by  relatively  few  streams, 
is  supplemented  by  drilled  and  dug  wells,  by  artesian  flows,  and 
by  dams  conveniently  placed  to  catch  and  store  the  run-off  from 
torrential  storms.  The  possibiHties  of  extending  the  use  of  the 
forage  crop  in  the  Great  Plains  will  depend  largely  upon  the 
extent  to  which  water  for  hvestock  purposes  can  be  increased, 
to  a  lesser  degree  upon  improved  methods  of  handhng  the  stock 
on  the  range,   and  upon  supplemental  winter  feeding. 

The  Great  Basin.  —  The  term  "  Great  Basin  "  applies  to 
that  region  lying  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada  range  which  has  no  outlet  to  the  sea.  The  region  in- 
cludes nearly  the  whole  of  Nevada  and  portions  of  Utah,  Wy- 
oming, Oregon,  and  California  —  a  total  area  of  approximately 
217,000  square  miles.  In  general,  the  Great  Basin  presents  a 
uniform  appearance  with  respect  to  both  topography  and  vege- 


THE   GREAT   BASIN  7 

tation.  Much  of  the  range  region  is  comparatively  level,  lying 
between  elevations  of  4,000  and  5,000  feet,  although  there  are 
some  marked  depressions,  such  as  Death  Valley,  with  a  general 
level  below  the  sea,  and  some  elevated  mountain  ranges,  such 
as  the  Wasatches,  ascending  to  a  height  of  more  than  11,000 
feet.  Because  of  the  limited  rainfall,  averaging  from  6  inches 
per  annum  in  the  most  arid  parts  of  Nevada  to  about  30  inches 
over  restricted  foothills  and  mountain  lands,  the  vegetation  is 
largely  of  a  desert  or  semi-desert  type  (Fig.  i).     The  most  con- 


-  TYPICAL  DESERT  RANGE  OF  THE  GREAT  BASIN  REGION  USED  EXTEN- 
SIVELY IN  WINTER  FOR   SHEEP   GRAZING. 

Sagebrush,  shadscale,  and  mountain  ricegrass  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  forage. 


spicuous  vegetation  consists  of  several  species  of  sagebrush, 
saltbush,  greasewood,  scrub  oak,  shadscale,  and  a  number  of 
drought-enduring  bunchgrasses. 

In  the  Great  Basin  region,  as  in  the  Great  Plains,  dry  farming 
is  restricted  to  limited  areas  favored  by  deep,  rich  soil  but  having 
insufficient  rainfall  for  the  extensive  production  of  farm  crops. 
Stock  grazing,  therefore,  must  constitute  the  main  agricultural 
pursuit,  so  far  as  the  lands  are  at  all  suited  for  agricultural 
purposes.     In  those  parts  of  Utah,  however,  where  water  is 


8  PASTURE  LANDS  AND   GRAZING   CONTROL 

abundant,  efficient  systems  of  irrigation  farming  have  been 
perfected. 

The  Southwest.  —  This  region  includes  New  Mexico,  Arizona, 
and  southern  Cahfornia,  and  is  therefore  characterized  by  both 
high  temperatures  and  extreme  aridity.  In  the  lower  valleys, 
citrus  and  similar  tropical  fruits,  as  well  as  other  crops,  are 
grown;  in  the  interior  there  is  a  limited  amount  of  dry  farming, 
grazing  constituting  the  chief  agricultural  industry.  In  nor- 
thern Arizona  the  elevation  (about  6,000  feet  and  higher)  is  too 
great  for  successful  farming,  but  here  the  forage  crop  is  excellent. 
On  account  of  favorable  climatic  conditions  in  the  high  mountain 
region  and  the  proximity  to  winter  (desert)  range,  sheep  raising 
is  especially  popular  in  the  more  rugged  portions.  Sheep,  as 
well  as  cattle  and  horses,  thrive  well  on  the  winter  annual  plants, 
such  as  plantain,  alfilaria,  peas,  and  various  early  grasses,  par- 
ticularly the  highly  esteemed  gramas,  the  mesquites,  the  fescues, 
and  many  others. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Region.  —  This  region  embraces  Idaho, 
the  western  part  of  Montana,  Wyoming,  and  Colorado,  and  the 
eastern  part  of  Utah,  Oregon,  and  Washington.  The  region  is 
characterized  by  valley  and  basin  lands  from  3,000  to  7,000  feet 
in  elevation,  and  by  mountain  ranges  from  8,000  to  more  than 
14,000  feet  above  sea  level  (Fig.  2). 

Because  of  the  high  elevation  of  the  region  as  a  whole  and  the 
heavy  precipitation,  the  lands  generally  are  well  watered.  The 
annual  precipitation  in  the  valleys  and  basins  averages  about 
20  inches,  but  in  the  mountains  it  may  exceed  30  inches.  The 
high  elevation,  however,  is  associated  with  a  relatively  short 
growing  season  and  a  long,  cold  winter.  Much  of  the  annual 
precipitation,  therefore,  comes  in  the  form  of  snow. 

Except  where  the  soil  is  alkaHne,  it  is  capable  of  good  crop 
production.  As  in  the  Great  Basin  and  the  Southwest,  the 
superior  character  of  the  native  forage,  consisting  mainly  of 
grasses  and  weeds,  with  browse  in  places,  makes  the  grazing  of 
livestock  by  far  the  most  important  agricultural  pursuit.  For 
the  reason  that  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  is  subject  to  more 
severe  weather  than  the  Great  Basin  and  the  Southwest,  and 


INFLUENCE   OF   THE    SETTLER 


thus  imposes  on  the  stockman  a  long  winter-feeding  period,  it  is 
evident  that  the  latter  regions  afford  the  better  livestock  breed- 
ing grounds.  Jt  is  a  fact,  however,  that  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region   furnishes   the  tenderest  and  choicest  of  feed.     Climat- 


(Foresl  Service.) 
Fig.  2.  —  SUMMER  RANGE  OF  HIGH  GRAZING  CAPACITY  IN  THE  ROCKIES  WHERE 
BOTH  TIMBER  AND   LIVESTOCK  ARE  PRODUCED. 

ically,  this  region  is  almost  ideal  for  stock  during  the  spring, 
summer,  and  autumn  periods;  and,  because  of  the  abundance  of 
water  generally,  the  forage  crop  is  well  utilized. 

GRAZING  CONTROL 
Influence  of  the  Settler.  —  The  farmer  and  ranchman  are  not 
now,  as  formerly,  especially  in  the  West,  the  monarchs  of  all 
they  survey.  Very  recent  years  have  brought  a  change  in  many 
range  sections  from  a  state  of  open  grazing  lands  to  settled  com- 
munities, with  the  land  in  ownership  or  held  under  homestead 


lO  PASTURE   LANDS   AND   GRAZING   CONTROL 

entry.  In  the  Pacific  States  and  Western  States  alone,  over 
123,000,000  acres  of  public  land  have  been  homesteaded  since 
1905,  more  than  half  of  which  was  taken  up  between  1909  and 

1915- 

Lands  of  least  resistance  welcome  the  plow  and  are  usually 
the  first  to  be  settled.  The  best  of  such  new  lands  have  now 
become  fence-enclosed  farms  with  red  barns  on  them.  Prac- 
tically all  the  land  on  which  there  is  a  remote  possibility  of  making 
a  living  by  farming  has  been  occupied,  although  much  of  it, 
because  of  lack  of  ample  rainfall  or  on  account  of  the  short 
growing  season,  should  never  have  felt  the  plow. 

In  many  localities  dry  farming  has  proved  anything  but  suc- 
cessful; poverty-stricken  homesteaders,  no  longer  able  to  meet 
the  financial  strain,  have  disposed  of  their  holdings  to  the  larger 
stock  breeders  for  what  they  could  get,  and  their  land  has  again 
been  put  to  its  original  use  —  grazing.  Those  farmers  who  suc- 
ceed, however,  usually  fence  against  stock  and  thereby  often 
render  much  of  the  adjacent,  otherwise  available  land  inac- 
cessible for  foraging  purposes. 

Where  good  agricultural  crops  can  be  grown,  settlement  should 
be  strongly  encouraged;  for  not  only  will  more  and  better  stock 
be  produced  where  cultivated  crops  can  be  grown,  but  home  life 
will  be  provided.  Much  of  the  unclaimed  public-domain  land, 
which  in  1922  was  approximately  200,000,000  acres  —  an  area 
nearly  as  large  as  that  of  Germany  and  France  combined  —  will 
be  homesteaded  sooner  or  later.  Prior  to  their  being  patented, 
however,  the  greater  part  of  the  remaining  public  lands  should 
be  carefully  classified  by  the  Federal  Government  to  deter- 
mine for  what  purpose  they  are  best  suited.  Following  such 
a  classification,  an  intelligent  disposition  of  the  lands  could  be 
made,  and  many  a  settler  would  be  safeguarded  against  such 
serious  reverses  as  many  have  already  experienced;  for  it  is  a 
fact  that  a  great  number  of  homesteads,  whose  lands  are  suit- 
able only  for  grazing  purposes,  have  unfortunately  been  taken 
up  for  the  growing  of  farm  crops. 

Cause  and  Effect  of  Overgrazing.  —  Range  and  pasture  vege- 
tation, if  given  adequate  time  in  which  to  recuperate,  is  able  to 


CAUSE   AND   EFFECT  OF  OVERGRAZING  II 

recover  from  the  effects  of  a  season's  overgrazing,  just  as  it  will 
regain  its  vigor  after  a  year  of  drought  if  such  a  season  is  fol- 
lowed by  years  of  normal  precipitation.  If,  however,  over- 
grazing is  persisted  in  for  several  successive  years,  complete 
barrenness  is  the  inevitable  result,  and  many  years  are  required 


Fig.  3.  — small,  BADLY  DEPLETED  AREA  PROTECTED  BY    I  HE  FOREST  SERVICE 

AGAINST  GRAZING   FOR  FIVE  YEARS. 

It  was  the  aim  to  determine  the  time  required  for  revegetation,  which  is  usually  slow  on  badly  trampled 

lands,  and  for  a  long  time  only  inferior  pasture  plants  are  seen. 

in  which  to  build  up  the  soil  and  restore  its  original  forage  yield 
(Fig.  3)- 

At  the  time  when  the  railroads  were  extended  into  the  pas- 
ture regions  of  the  West,  the  persons  in  the  East  who  owned 
western  range  property  began  to  investigate  and  dispose  of 
their  holdings.  The  western  graziers  soon  realized  that  they 
could  no  longer  depend  entirely  upon  "  free  "  grass;  and,  in- 
stead of  this  frontier  country  supplying  "all  the  food  for  all 
the  cows  in  the  world,"  as  some  had  formerly  believed  it  would 
do,  it  was  suddenly  realized  that  the  ranges  were  overcrowded. 


12  PASTURE  LANDS   AND   GRAZING   CONTROL 

The  stockmen  were  at  once  seized  with  the  desire  to  make 
every  dollar  possible  out  of  their  opportunity,  and  it  was  not 
long,  of  course,  until  the  lands  were  seriously  overgrazed.  In- 
stead, therefore,  of  the  cowmen  continuing  to  be  "  cattle  kings," 
each  with  a  ''princely  kingdom,"  innumerable  large  owners 
were  forced  into  bankruptcy.  In  the  beginning,  the  beUef  hav- 
ing prevailed  that  the  ranges  had  unlimited  carrying  capacity, 
no  thought  had  been  given  to  the  conservation  of  the  forage 
resource  on  a  permanent  business  basis  or  for  future  generations. 
The  same  condition  existed  in  Maryland  and  Virginia  and  other 
Eastern  States  prior  to  the  western  frontier  movement. 

Range  abuses  by  domestic  animals  can  invariably  be  traced 
back  to  overstocking.  The  carrying  capacity  of  any  pasture 
can  safely  be  estimated  only  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  stock 
it  will  support  in  good  condition  in  years  of  average  or,  prefer- 
ably, slightly  less  than  average  forage  yields.  By  proper  stock- 
ing, the  lands  steadily  increase  in  value,  the  carrying  capacity  is 
augmented,  and  the  profits  from  transforming  the  grass  into 
meat  are  increased  as  a  result  of  the  improved  condition  of  the 
animals.  But  the  lands  could  not  be  stocked  within  the  Hmits 
of  their  carrying  capacity  in  the  absence  of  grazing  regulations; 
and,  before  suitable  regulations  could  be  perfected,  the  cow- 
men and  sheepmen  insisted  on  having  their  fling. 

Range  Wars.  —  Despite  the  threatened  depletion  of  the 
native  pastures  in  the  early  nineties  of  the  last  century,  still 
more  cattle  and  sheep  were  crowded  on  the  lands,  and  a  des- 
perate struggle  for  range  ensued.  Cattle  owners  would  crowd 
the  sheep  breeders,  and  the  latter  would  work  their  herds  up 
the  mountains  in  the  spring  as  early  as  forage  and  weather  con- 
ditions would  permit,  and  the  feed  upon  which  the  cattlemen 
were  dependent  would  be  consumed  (Fig.  4).  The  feeling  be- 
tween the  two  hvestock  interests  soon  became  extremely  bitter. 
The  sheep  breeders,  claiming  as  good  a  right  to  the  free  forage 
as  anybody,  would  graze  their  bands  up  to  the  very  doors  of  the 
cattle  owners.  The  cattlemen,  on  account  of  owning  property 
and  paying  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  Government,  which 
many  of  the  sheep  breeders  did  not  do,  claimed  prior  right  to 


RANGE  WARS 


13 


the  use  of  the  public  range  in  the  neighborhood  of  their  hold- 
ings. 

The  most  intense  feeUng  was  aroused  with  respect  to  migratory- 
sheep,  which  were  often  driven  great  distances  to  the  summer 
ranges,  coming  from  neighboring  counties  and,  not  uncommonly, 
from  adjacent  States.     The  alien  sheep  interests  added  to  the 


Fig.  4.  —  SUMMER  RANGE  DENUDED  OF  VEGETATION  AS  A  RESULT  OF  COM- 
PETITION BETWEEN  SHEEPMEN  AND  CATTLEMEN  DURING  THE  "FREE-FOR- 
ALL"   GRAZING  PERIOD. 

Many  years  of  skillful  livestock  handling  are  required  to  reestablish  the  once  luxuriant  growth  of 
nutritious  bunchgrasses. 

controversy.  In  some  localities  the  pastures  were  overrun  by 
sheepmen  who  were  not  citizens  and  who,  of  course,  owned  no 
land.^  When  sheepmen  took  their  bands  from  the  ranges  in 
the  fall  they  often  started  fires  to  destroy  any  remnant  of 
vegetation  that  might  be  grazed  by  cattle.  Fierce  conflicts 
followed  such  action.  Herders  were  killed  and  animals  were 
shot  down  or  so  scattered  that  they  became  the  prey  of  coyotes 
and  other  wild  beasts. 

1  Griffiths,  David,  "Forage  Conditions  on  the  Northern  Border  of  the  Great 
Basin."     U.  S.  Deot.  of  Agr..  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  15,  p.  23,  1902. 


14  PASTURE  LANDS  AND   GRAZING   CONTROL 

In  order  to  protect  their  interests,  stockmen  organized  asso- 
ciations which  were  empowered  to  act  either  by  the  persuasive 
force  of  the  six-shooter  or  through  mediators.  The  methods 
of  "  mediation  "  are  well  illustrated  by  the  procedure  of  a  cer- 
tain organization  of  the  Northwest.  Following  some  desperate 
engagements  in  eastern  Oregon  in  June,  1904,  an  organization 
known  as  the  "  Crook  County  Sheep-Shooting  Association  of 
Eastern  Oregon  "  published  the  following  statement,  which  is 
typical  of  the  attitude  of  the  associations  during  those  turbulent 
times. 

Sheep-Shooters'  Headquarters, 

Crook  County,  Oregon, 

December  29,  1904. 
Morning  Oregonian, 

Portland,  Oregon. 

Mr.  Editor:  —  Seeing  that  you  are  giving  quite  a  bit  of  publicity  to  the 
Sheep  Shooters  of  Crook  County,  I  thought  I  would  lend  you  some  assistance 
by  giving  you  a  short  synopsis  of  the  proceedings  of  the  organization  during 
the  past  year.  .  .  Therefore,  if  space  will  permit,  please  publish  the  follow- 
ing report: 

"  Sheep-Shooters'  Headquarters,  Crook  County,  Oregon,  December  29, 
1904. —  Editor  Oregonian:  I  am  authorized  by  the  association  (The  Inland 
Sheep  Shooters)  to  notify  the  Oregonian  to  desist  from  pubUshing  matter 
derogatory  to  the  reputation  of  sheep  shooters  in  Eastern  Oregon.  We  claim 
to  have  the  banner  county  of  Oregon  on  the  progressive  Hnes  of  sheep  shooting, 
and  it  is  my  pleasure  to  inform  you  that  we  have  a  little  government  of  our 
own  in  Crook  County,  and  we  would  thank  the  Oregonian  and  the  Governor 
to  attend  strictly  to  their  business  and  not  meddle  with  the  settlement  of 
the  range  question  in  our  province. 

"We  are  the  direct  and  effective  means  of  controlling  the  range  in  our 
jurisdiction.  If  we  want  more  range  wc  simply  fence  it  in  and  hve  up  to  the 
maxim  of  the  golden  rule  that  possession  represents  nine  points  of  the  law. 
If  fencing  is  too  expensive  substitutes  are  readily  manufactured.  When 
sheepmen  faU  to  observe  these  peaceable  obstructions  we  delegate  a  com- 
mittee to  notify  offenders,  sometimes  by  putting  notices  on  tent  or  cabin 
and  sometimes  by  pubUcation  in  one  of  the  leading  newspapers  of  the  county 
as  follows:  'You  are  hereby  notified  to  move  this  camp  within  twenty-four 
hours  or  take  the  consequences.     Signed:    Committee.' 

"These  mild  and  peaceful  means  are  usually  effective,  but  in  cases  where 
they  are  not,  our  executive  committee  takes  the  matter  in  hand,  and  being 
men  of  high  ideals  as  well  as  good  shots  by  moonlight,  they  promptly  enforce 


QUESTIONS  15 

the  edicts  of  the  association.  .  .  Our  annual  report  shows  that  we  have 
slaughtered  between  8,000  and  10,000  head  of  sheep  during  the  last  shooting 
season  and  we  expect  to  increase  this  respectable  showing  during  the  next 
season  providing  the  sheep  hold  out  and  the  Governor  and  Oregonian  observe 
the  customary  laws  of  neutrality.  In  some  instances  the  woolgrowers  of 
Eastern  Oregon  have  been  so  unwise  as  to  offer  rewards  for  the  arrest  and 
con\nction  of  sheep  shooters  and  for  assaults  on  herders.  We  have  heretofore 
warned  them  by  publication  of  the  danger  of  such  action,  as  it  might  have 
to  result  in  our  organization  having  to  proceed  on  the  lines  that  'Dead  men 
tell  no  tales.'  This  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  threat  to  commit  murder,  as 
we  do  not  justify  such  a  thing,  except  where  fiockowners  resort  to  unjustifiable 
means  in  protecting  their  property." 

{Signed)  Corresponding  Secretary, 

Crook  County's  Sheep-Shooting 
Association  of  Eastern  Oregon. 

Conflicts  over  range  territory  continued  until  "  dead  lines  " 
were  established,  vi^hich,  by  mutual  agreement  entered  into  by 
the  livestock  associations,  were  not  to  be  traversed  by  cattle 
and  sheep.  Only  occasionally  after  the  location  of  "  dead 
lines  "  did  range  wars  of  serious  consequences  occur.  Many 
bitter  range  controversies  were  also  adjusted  by  the  poHcy  of 
creating  National  Forests  and  by  the  leasing  of  pasture  lands. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  meat  an  important  constituent  of  the  human  diet? 

2.  (a)  What  was  the  approximate  acreage  of  the  public  domain  in  1920, 
including  reserved  lands,  found  west  of  the  looth  meridian?  (b)  How  does 
the  acreage  of  grazing  lands  in  the  United  States  compare  with  that  of  culti- 
vated lands?  (c)  What  is  the  approximate  acreage  of  unimproved  land  which 
is  used  for  the  grazing  of  livestock? 

3.  What  is  the  chief  cause  of  range  and  pasture  abuse? 

4.  What  are  the  outstanding  peculiarities  and  chief  agricultural  pursuits 
(a)  in  the  Great  Plains,  (b)  in  the  Great  Basin,  (c)  in  the  Southwest,  (d) 

in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region? 

5.  What  relation,  if  any,  exists  between  range  abuse,  free  range  use,  and 
range  wars? 

6.  Discuss  the  value  of  livestock  organizations  in  minimizing  the  loss  of 
property  and  human  lives  during  the  period  of  range  wars. 

7.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  a  "dead  line." 

8.  What  were  the  conditions  that  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  "dead 
lines?" 


PASTURE   LANDS  AND   GRAZING  CONTROL 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CoviLLE,  Frederick  V.     Forest  Growth  and  Sheep  Grazing  in  the  Cascade 

Mountains  of  Oregon.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Forestry,  Bui. 

IS,  i8q8. 
A  Report  on  Systems  of  Leasing  Large  Areas  of  Grazing  Lands.     U.  S. 

Public  Lands  Commission,  Report,  1905. 
GoLDENWEiSER,  E.  A.,  and  Ball,  J.  S.     Pasture  Lands  on  Farms  in  the 

United  States.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  626,  1918. 
Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark.     Range  Management  on  the 

National  Forests.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  1919. 
Potter,    Albert   F.     Administration   of    Grazing   in   National    Forests. 

Amer.  Nat'l  Livestock  Assoc'n,  1913. 
Public   Lands   Commission.     Grazing   on   the   Public   Domain.     U.   S. 

Dept.  of  Agr.,  Forest  Service,  Bui.  62,  Pt.  I,  1905. 
Sampson,  Arthur  W.     Suggestions  for  Instruction  in  Range  Management. 

Jour,  of  Forestry,  Vol.  17,  No.  5,  1919. 


CHAPTER  II 

NATIONAL   FOREST,   STATE,   AND   PRIVATE 
GRAZING   LANDS 

THE  NATIONAL  FORESTS 

In  1891,  in  the  face  of  the  threatened  destruction  of  the  public 
range  and  alhed  resources,  Congress  authorized  the  President 
to  set  aside  "  Forest  Reserves,"  as  the  National  Forests  were 
then  called,  in  order  to  develop  and  preserve  the  timber,  the 
forage  supply,  and  the  other  resources  of  the  Forests. 

The  "  Yellowstone  Park  Reserve  "  was  the  first  created. 
Since  then  many  others  have  been  set  aside,  and  on  June  30, 
192 1,  the  gross  area  of  forest  lands  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
National  Forests  was  156,666,045  acres,  including  the  Forests 
in  Alaska.  Most  of  these  lands  lie  at  elevations  too  high  for 
successful  farming  and  are  valuable  chiefly  for  the  timber  and 
forage  they  produce,  and  for  watershed  purposes.  Of  the  gross 
acreage,  at  least  two-thirds  is  used  each  season  for  the  grazing 
of  livestock. 

Object  of  Creating  the  National  Forests.  —  In  the  creation 
of  the  National  Forests  the  aim"  was  so  to  administer  their  vast 
resources  as  to  give  all  persons  an  equal  opportunity  to  enjoy 
them,  and  at  the  same  time  to  conserve  and  perpetuate  their 
resources  by  proper  use.  That  continues  to  be  the  aim.  In 
addition  to  the  broader  economic  reasons  for  the  creation  of 
National  Forests,  there  are  many  local  reasons  for  the  Nation's 
possessing  such  Forests,  as,  for  instance,  the  proper  protec- 
tion of  the  home  seeker,  the  protection  of  local  properties,  and 
the  prevention  of  unfair  competition.  It  is  only  through  proper 
control  by  the  Government  that  the  resources  of  the  National 
Forests,  estimated  to  have  a  value  in  the  neighborhood  of  two 
billion  dollars,  can  be  rented  or  sold  on  a  fair  and  equitable  basis. 
The  policy  initiated  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  his  letter 

17 


1 8  NATIONAL   FOREST,   STATE,  AND   PRIVATE   LANDS 

to  the  Forester  under  date  of  February  i,  1905,  is  so  compre- 
hensive as  to  warrant  its  inclusion  here . 

In  the  administration  of  the  forest  reserves  it  must  be  clearly  borne  in  mind 
that  all  land  is  to  be  devoted  to  its  most  productive  use  for  the  permanent 
good  of  the  whole  people,  and  not  for  the  temporary  benefit  of  individuals  or 
companies.  All  the  resources  of  forest  reserves  are  for  use,  and  this  use  must 
be  brought  about  in  a  thoroughly  prompt  and  businesslike  manner,  under 
such  restrictions  only  as  will  insure  the  permanence  of  these  resources.  The 
vital  importance  of  forest  reserves  to  the  great  industries  of  the  Western 
States  will  be  largely  increased  in  the  near  future  by  the  continued  steady 
advance  in  settlement  and  development.  The  permanence  of  the  resources 
of  the  reserves  is  therefore  indispensable  to  continued  prosperity,  and  the 
policy  of  this  department  for  their  protection  and  use  will  invariably  be  guided 
by  this  fact,  always  bearing  in  mind  that  the  conservative  use  of  these  re- 
sources in  no  way  conflicts  with  their  permanent  value. 

You  will  see  to  it  that  the  water,  wood,  and  forage  of  the  reserves  are  con- 
served and  wisely  used  for  the  benefit  of  the  home  builder,  first  of  all,  upon 
whom  depends  the  best  permanent  use  of  lands  and  resources  alike.  The 
continued  prosperity  of  the  agricultural,  lumbering,  mining,  and  livestock 
interests  is  directly  dependent  upon  a  permanent  and  accessible  supply  of 
water,  wood,  and  forage,  as  well  as  upon  the  present  and  future  use  of  these 
resources  under  businesslike  regulations  enforced  with  promptness,  effective- 
ness, and  common  sense.  In  the  management  of  each  reserve  local  questions 
win  be  decided  upon  local  grounds;  the  dominant  industry  will  be  considered 
first,  but  with  as  httle  restriction  to  minor  industries  as  may  be  possible; 
sudden  changes  in  industrial  conditions  will  be  avoided  by  gradual  adjustment 
after  due  notice,  and  where  conflicting  interests  must  be  reconciled  the  ques- 
tion will  always  be  decided  from  the  standpoint  of  the  greatest  good  of  the 
greatest  number  in  the  long  run. 

As  the  National  Forests  were  created  very  largely  for  the 
proper  protection  and  development  of  timber  and  the  protection 
and  improvement  of  the  watersheds,  great  pains  must  be  taken 
to  harmonize  the  use  of  all  the  resources.  The  forage  crop  is 
no  exception. 

Livestock  on  the  National  Forests.  —  The  yearly  forage  crop 
is  harvested  by  livestock  belonging  to  persons  who  are  qualified 
to  enjoy  the  privilege.  As  fully  as  is  consistent  with  the  devel- 
opment of  all  other  Forest  resources,  the  United  States  Forest 
Service  seeks  to  utilize  the  forage  crop  on  all  range  or  timber 
types  and  at  the  different  elevations  from  a  few  hundred  feet 


LIVESTOCK  ON   THE   NATIONAL   FORESTS 


19 


(Forest  Service.) 
Fig.    s.  —  MODERATE   CATrLE   GRA/.EXG   AND   TIMBER  PRODUCTION  ON  A  NA- 
TIONAL  FOREST   IN   THE   YELLOW  PINE  TYPE. 
Good  pasturage  and  a  superior  quality  of  timber  are  produced  on  a  large  part  of  the  lands  controlled 
by  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service.     It  is  the  aim  of  the  Forest  Service  to  utilize  all  of  the  resources  the 
land  is  capable  of  producing. 


6.  —  SHEEP  GRAZING  ON  A  GRASSY  GLADE  IN  ALPINE  FIR  TYPE  ON  NA- 
TIONAL  FOREST  RANGE   AT  AN  ELEVATION  OF   10,000   FEET. 
Few  ranges  are  too  rugged  for  sheep  to  enjoy  the  choice  menu  which  they  afford. 


20  NATIONAL   FOREST,   STATE,   AND   PRIVATE   LANDS 

above  sea  level  in  the  foothills  and  valleys  to  10,000  feet  or  more 
at  the  crest  (Figs.  5  and  6).  This  intensive  utilization  is  neces- 
sary because  of  the  ever-increasing  demand  for  range.  Accord- 
ingly, therefore,  the  question  of  the  proper  handling  of  the  stock 
without  serious  injury  to  the  vegetation  generally  is  of  the  great- 
est economic  importance,  and  is  often  most  perplexing.  The 
attempt  to  solve  the  many  technical  and  practical  grazing  prob- 
lems with  v/hich  the  United  States  Forest  Service  is  faced  has 
resulted  in  the  development  of  a  corps  of  range  experts,  the 
value  of  whose  service  is  very  great. 

The  growth  of  the  grazing  industry  on  the  National  Forests 
has  been  steady  and  rapid  since  the  lands  came  under  the  control 
of  the  Forest  Service.  The  following  table  shows  the  number 
of  cattle  and  sheep  grazed  on  the  National  Forests  in  eleven 
western  range  States  from  191 5  to  1920,  inclusive. 


LIVESTOCK   ON  THE   NATIONAL   FORESTS 


Number  of  Cattle  and  Sheep  Grazed  under  Permit  on  the  National 

Forests  of  Eleven  of  the  Far  Western  States  During  the  Fiscal 

Years  Ending  June  30,  1915-1920,  Inclusive 


Cattle 


State 

1920 

1919 

1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

Arizona 

California 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Montana 

Nevada 

New  Mexico.  .  . 

Oregon 

Utah 

346,739 
202,378 
372,582 
173.089 
162,856 

76,123 
167,630 
158,698 
163,535 

29,728 
119,690 

360,011 
208.683 
380,460 
190,608 
170,674 

77.432 
174.979 
162,004 
172,246 

30.743 
143,204 

334,063 
214,312 
400,883 
189,581 
175,200 

83,909 
186,640 
156,583 
178,851 

29.306 
133.234 

310,815 
196,002 
338,265 
180,148 
165,501 

77,274 
165,256 
140,861 
176,67s 

24,871 
127,925 

286,252 
183,746 
317,801 
158,513 
147.053 

81,161 
120,148 
124.350 
171.525 

21,269 
110,563 

288,875 
176,616 
301,208 
108,500 
133.560 
74.077 
101,293 
108,777 

Washington 

Wyoming 

15.977 
106,506 

Total 

Total  all 

Forests 

1,973,048 
2,033,800 

2,071,044 
2.135.527 

2,082,562 

2,137.854 

1.903,593 
1.953. 198 

1,722,381 
1,758,764 

1,586,642 
1,627,321 

Sheep 


State 

1920 

1919 

1918 

1917 

1916 

1915 

Arizona 

California 

Colorado 

Idaho 

346,046 
515.558 
1,018,499 
1,686,681 
661,529 
347,860 
402,728 
718,403 
757.724 
226,769 
580,696 

364,853 
606,526 
1,044,208 
1.758.877 
835,224 
390,753 
440,302 
753,418 
811,510 
236,307 
680,670 

427,873 
570,722 
1,105,071 
1,960,161 
809,855 
467,473 
483,501 
783.473 
842.327 
222,272 
779.056 

369,307 
456,325 
917,120 
1,672,218 
774.927 
395.225 
479,817 
772,224 
802,068 
253.141 
692.673 

366,902 
409,835 
902,146 

1,703,519 
840,787 
482,397 
437,958 
764,150 
872,155 
232,546 
830,170 

389,657 
390,926 
629,940 
1,594.726 
730,507 
454,615 
405,280 
769,323 
919,834 
238,824 
707,622 

Montana 

Nevada 

New  Mexico.  .  . 

Oregon 

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming 

Total 

Total  all 

Forests 

7.262,493 
7,271,136 

7,922,648 
7,935,174 

8,451,784 
8,454,240 

7,585,045 
7,586,034 

7.842,565 
7.843.205 

7.231.254 
7,232,276 

22  NATIONAL   FOREST,   STATE,   AND   PRIVATE   LANDS 

As  would  be  expected,  Colorado,  with  her  large  acreage  of 
National  Forest  lands,  leads  in  the  number  of  cattle  grazed  on 
Forest  range;  Arizona  is  second,  and  California  third.  Idaho 
greatly  outranks  all  other  States  in  the  number  of  sheep  on 
National  Forests;   Colorado  is  second,  and  Utah  third. 

An  idea  of  the  influence  of  the  National  Forests  on  the  eco- 
nomic welfare  of  communities  and  on  the  development  and  stabili- 
zation of  the  livestock  industry  in  the  West  generally  may  be 
had  from  the  fact  that  9,405,499  head  of  stock,  all  classes  con- 
sidered, were  grazed  on  the  National  Forests  in  1909,  whereas  a 
total  of  10,229,895  head  were  permitted  on  these  ranges  in  1919, 
an  increase  in  the  decade  of  824,396  head.  The  following 
table  shows  the  classes  of  these  animals  and  the  increase  during 
the  decade  of  the  number  grazed.  With  the  exception  of  goats 
there  has  been  an  increase  in  all  classes  of  stock  grazed  during  the 
period  in  question. 


Increase  in  Livestock  on  the  National  Forests  in  19 19  as  Compared 
WITH  1909 


Year 

Cattle 

Sheep 

Horses 

Goats 

Hogs 

Total 

1919 

2,135-527 

7,935,174 

93-251 

60,789 

5,154 

10,229,895 

1909 

1,491.38s 

7.679-698 

90,019 

139,896 

4,501 

9,405,499 

Increase 
1919 

644,142 

255,476 

3,232 

—79,107 

653 

824,396 

These  figures  are  especially  significant  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  increase  in  the  number  of  cattle  is  about  two  and  a  half  times 
greater  than  that  of  all  other  classes  of  stock.  By  expressing 
the  figures  on  a  uniform  basis,  say  in  terms  of  sheep,  there  was 
an  increase  in  1919  over  1909  of  3,413,892  head.  One  cow  or 
one  horse  is  here  considered  the  equivalent  of  five  sheep,  and  one 
goat  or  one  hog  the  equivalent  of  one  sheep. 

The  number  of  stock  grazed  on  the  National  Forests  represents 
an  investment  by  the  owners  of  about  $175,000,000,  from  which 


NATIONAL  FOREST   GRAZING  POLICY  23 

the  annual  gross  receipts  are  approximately  $50,000,000.  In 
addition,  the  grazing  fees  in  1919  alone,  which  up  to  that  time 
had  been  below  the  actual  commercial  value  of  the  privileges 
granted,  brought  to  the  Government  $2,609,170. 

From  the  figures  and  facts  given  it  is  evident  that  the  grazing 
business  on  the  National  Forests  must  receive  proper  protection. 
The  continued  development  and  prosperity  of  this  great  industry 
call  for  the  closest  possible  harmonization  of  grazing  with  the 
other  resources  of  the  Forests. 

National  Forest  Grazing  Policy.^  —  When  the  National  Forests 
were  first  created,  all  sheep  were  excluded  from  the  ranges, 
except  in  Oregon  and  Washington,  where  precipitation  was 
abundant  and  tree  reproduction  heavy.  This  was  because  the 
behef  prevailed  that  grazing  was  detrimental  to  timber  produc- 
tion and  to  the  control  of  streamfiow.  Although  there  were 
many  glaring  examples  of  injury  caused  by  livestock  to  the  timber 
reproduction  as  a  result  of  the  highly  abusive  grazing  practices 
which  had  prevailed  before  the  Forests  were  established,  there 
was  much  thrifty  growth  of  timber  on  long-used  but  moderately 
grazed  lands  (Fig.  7).  The  entire  exclusion  of  stock  on  Forest 
lands  generally  in  the  early  days  was,  in  part,  because  of  the 
bad  results  of  uncontrolled  grazing  of  stock  on  European  forests 
where  intensive  silviculture  had  long  been  practiced.  In  Ger- 
many, for  example,  damage  by  livestock  to  the  timber  repro- 
duction under  intensive  use  of  th^  forest  was  recognized  as 
early  as  11 58.-  The  grazing  of  cattle  was  restricted  to  open 
parks  and  meadows;  but  the  grazing  of  hogs  on  the  German 
forests  could  not  always  be  controlled  by  the  Government 
because  of  the  ancient  peasant  rights. 

The  European  Governments,  in  the  administration  of  their 
forests,  failed  to  recognize  the  use  of  the  range  as  a  privilege," 

^  It  is  not  the  aim  here  to  discuss  the  details  of  the  grazing  regulations  as  carried 
out  in  the  administration  of  the  National  Forest  ranges,  but  rather  to  consider 
briefly  the  broader  grazing  policies  adopted  in  the  harvesting  of  the  forage  crop. 
For  a  full  discussion  of  the  National  Forest  grazing  regulations  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  "The  National  Forest  Manual"  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

2  Fernow,  B.  E.,  "Economics  of  Forestry,"  p.  92. 


24  NATIONAL   FOREST,    STATE,   AND   PRIVATE   LANDS 

on  the  contrary,  because  of  long  usage  the  practice  of  grazing 
and  of  utilizing  certain  timber  resources  became  a  prescriptive 
or  property  right.  On  account  of  these  prescriptive  rights  the 
European  Governments  were  unable  to  control  the  grazing  of 


(Forest  Service.) 
Fig.  7. —  cattle    RANGE    MODERATELY    GRAZED    EACH    SEASON   FOR   A   GREAT 
MANY    YEARS    SUPPORTS   A    DENSE,    HEALTHY    GROWTH   OF    YELLOW    PINE 
REPRODUCTION. 
Incidentally  the  removal  of  much  of  the  palatable  herbaceous  vegetation  protects  the  timber  and 
young  growth  from  destruction  by  fire. 

livestock  on  the  forest  areas,  even  though  it  was  known  that 
under  certain  conditions  serious  damage  resulted  from  excessive 
grazing. 

In  the  German  states  the  origin  of  the  property  right  dates 
back  hundreds  of  years  under  the  feudal  system  to  a  time  when 
both  range  and  timber  were  abundant  and  of  comparatively 


NATIONAL   FOREST   GR.\ZING   POLICY  25 

little  value,  and  the  large  forested  areas  were  held  by  the  nobles, 
kings,  and  emperors  as  breeding  grounds  for  game  and  as  tracts 
for  hunting.  The  peasant  population  that  was  located  conven- 
iently near  these  game  preserves  was  allowed,  free  of  charge,  the 
privilege  of  grazing  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs,  and  of 
cutting  fuel  wood  and  some  timber  under  certain  restrictions. 
No  restrictions  were  placed  upon  the  use  of  the  range  or  the  tim- 
ber so  long  as  it  did  not  seem  to  interfere  more  or  less  directly 
with  the  breeding  and  proper  protection  of  the  game,  or  with 
hunting. 

These  conditions  existed  in  Germany  up  to  about  1800,  when 
the  need  for  conserving  and  increasing  the  forest  resources  was 
keenly  felt,  and  the  practice  of  forestry  was  given  serious  con- 
sideration by  the  Govermnent.  With  a  rapidly  diminishing 
supply  of  meat  and  timber  and  the  consequent  necessity  of  im- 
proving the  productivity  of  the  range  lands  and  the  methods  of 
handling  livestock,  as  well  as  of  resorting  to  more  intensive  silvi- 
cultural  methods,  the  free  use  of  the  forage  and  timber  crops 
was  found  to  be  a  great  nuisance.  In  the  Spessart  Mountains 
in  Bavaria,  for  instance,  there  are  vast  Goverrmient  forests  of 
oak  and  beech.  In  order  to  maintain  a  maximum  stand  of  these 
timber  trees,  it  is  necessary  to  protect  the  acorn  and  beechnut 
mast,  at  least  at  periodic  intervals.  But  this  rich  mast  affords 
a  most  palatable  and  fattening  feed  for  range  hogs,  and  the  seed 
crop  is  annually  used  for  that  purpose.  The  practice  of  running 
hogs  on  these  beech  and  oak  lands  is  quite  extensive.  As  a 
consequence,  pork  is  often  produced,  and  the  reproduction  of 
the  forest  is  prevented. 

By  proper  regulation  it  is  probable  that  both  livestock  and 
timber  industries  could  be  carried  on  successfully.  However, 
as  the  peasants  for  so  long  a  time  have  enjoyed  the  privilege  of 
providing  themselves  with  firewood  and  of  using  the  range  lands, 
their  privileges  have  by  law  become  unquestionable  property 
rights,  and  the  practice  apparently  can  be  overcome  only  in  one 
of  two  ways  —  by  the  Government's  purchasing  the  privileges 
from  the  claimants  as  property  rights,  or  by  the  legislature's 
voting  away  prescriptive  rights  entirely.     It  is  not  probable  that 


26  NATIONAL  FOREST,   STATE,   AND   PRIVATE   LANDS 

either  will  be  done.  The  property  rights  could  not  be  purchased 
without  extremely  heavy  expense  to  the  Government;  hence 
that  plan  has  never  been  given  serious  consideration.  Likewise, 
no  serious  attempt  has  been  made,  by  vote,  to  take  away  from 
the  peasant  the  property  right.  The  various  legislatures  have 
refused  to  vote  away  prescriptive  rights,  either  feeling  that 
these  rights  legitimately  belong  to  the  people,  or  fearing  that  by 
so  doing  they  would  lose  the  votes  of  the  people  deriving  benefits 
from  the  forest  lands. 

In  the  light  of  the  costly  experiences  of  European  Govern- 
ments in  connection  with  the  estabHshment  of  property  rights 
in  forest  lands,  the  United  States  Forest  Service  is  justified  in 
considering  the  use  of  the  range  a  privilege  and  in  no  way  a  right. 
For  the  future  welfare  of  the  range  and  timber  resources  no 
recognition  of  the  privilege,  yearly  becoming  more  valuable, 
should  be  extended  by  our  Government  which  might  be  con- 
strued, even  in  the  broadest  sense,  as  establishing  a  property 
right. 

On  the  forests  of  India  regulated  grazing  of  all  classes  of  stock 
was  permitted  from  the  very  beginning,  for  which  a  reasonable 
grazing  fee  was  charged,  and  this  is  the  present  practice.  While 
the  grazing  fees  on  the  forests  of  India,  as  in  this  country,  are 
not  based  on  the  full  commercial  value  of  the  forage,  the  Indian 
Government  nevertheless  realizes  a  yearly  revenue  of  nearly 
$1,000,000.  Stockmen,  accustomed  to  using  the  ranges  embraced 
within  the  Indian  forests,  like  stock  raisers  in  this  country,  were 
willing  to  pay  for  the  grazing  privilege. 

The  Stockmen's  Protest.  —  Because  of  the  absolute  depen- 
dence of  general  agriculture  on  grazing  in  most  locahties  ad- 
joining the  National  Forests  in  the  western  United  States, 
numerous  and  vigorous  protests  were  raised  by  the  sheep  owners 
at  not  being  allowed  grazing  privileges  during  the  early  admin- 
istration of  the  National  Forests.  Prior  to  the  Government's 
assuming  control  of  the  Forest  lands  the  settlers  had  developed 
farms  and  ranches  which  were  and  still  are  far  too  remote  from 
transportation  facilities  for  the  marketing  of  crude  farm  products, 
and  hence  the  farmers  were  compelled  first  to  turn  the  hay  and 


GOVERNMENT  RULES  AND   REGULATIONS  27 

grain  into  beef  and  mutton.  In  order  to  remain  in  the  livestock 
business  it  was  necessary  for  the  ranchman  to  use  the  elevated, 
cool  summer  ranges  of  the  National  Forests,  at  least  during 
spring,  summer,  and  autumn.  Then,  as  now,  the  Forests  in 
many  communities  were  indispensable  to  permanent  and  profit- 
able settlement. 

Accordingly,  a  thorough-going  Federal  investigation  was  ar- 
ranged, which  soon  brought  out  the  injustice  of  totally  exclud- 
ing sheep  and  of  too  strictly  limiting  the  grazing  of  cattle  and 
horses  on  some  of  the  National  Forests.  In  numerous  localities 
it  was  found,  as  it  is  still  commonly  found,  that  the  utilization 
of  the  forage  crop  meant  very  much  more  to  the  home-builder 
than  did  the  timber  resources.  However,  it  was  evident  from 
the  condition  of  the  range  lands  that,  in  the  interest  both  of 
timber  and  forage  production  and  of  the  efficiency  of  the  water- 
shed, unregulated  grazing  could  no  longer  be  permitted.  On  the 
other  hand,  properly  regulated  grazing,  through  the  removal 
of  the  forage  crop,  was  believed  to  protect  the  Forests  from  de- 
structive fires.  Furthermore,  it  was  not  thought  that  the 
streamflow  supplying  the  irrigation  water  for  the  adjoining  farms 
would  be  interfered  with. 

Government  Rules  and  Regulations.  —  Following  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  more  liberal  grazing  policy  on  the  National  Forests, 
the  Federal  Government,  on  June  4,  1897,  was  empowered  to 
promulgate  rules  and  regulations  for  the  proper  control  of  live- 
stock. All  grazing  was  then  made  subject  to  the  issuance  of 
permits,  and  a  small  fee  was  decided  upon  for  the  grazing  privi- 
lege. That  method  still  obtains.  The  range  is  not  leased  in  the 
ordinary  sense,  but  the  grazing  is  looked  upon  as  a  personal 
privilege  or  license  based  upon  the  qualifications  of  the  individual. 
Local  settlers  and  stockmen  enjoy  the  first  right  to  the  use  of  the 
range.  In  this  way  unfair  competition  between  large  and  small 
stock  owners,  which  formerly  caused  so  much  trouble,  is  done 
away  with.  The  number  of  animals,  the  season  of  grazing,  the 
allotment  to  be  grazed,  and  detailed  rules  for  salting,  bedding, 
and  the  like  are  determined  and  enforced  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment.    Thus  the  functions  of  the  Forest  Service  in  regulating 


28  NATIONAL  FOREST,  STATE,  AND  PRIVATE  LANDS 

grazing  on  the  National  Forests  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  The  establishment  of  grazing  allotments  for  the  different 
classes  of  stock. 

2.  The  location  of  stock  driveways. 

3.  The  estabUshment  of  the  dates  when  the  stock  may  be 
admitted,  and  of  the  period  of  grazing. 

4.  The  determination  of  the  number  of  stock  that  may  be 
grazed  without  permanent  injury  to  the  resources  of  the  Forest. 

5.  The  determination  of  what  persons  are  qualified  to  enjoy 
the  grazing  privileges,  and  of  the  number  of  stock  each  is  entitled 
to  graze. 

6.  The  issuance  of  grazing  permits,  the  collection  of  grazing 
fees,  and  the  admission  and  proper  distribution  of  the  stock. 

7.  The  control  of  trespass  of  stock  and  the  collection  of 
damages  therefor. 

8.  The  rendering  of  assistance  to  the  grazier  in  every  way 
possible  to  secure  the  fullest  economical  utilization  of  each  type 

)A  of  forage  at  the  proper  time  in  the  season,  and  the  doing  of  the 
necessary  improvement  work  to  accomplish  this  end. 

Results  of  Regulated  Grazing.  —  Through  the  enforcement 
of  the  grazing  regulations  adopted  by  the  United  States  Forest 
Service,  constructive  cooperation  has  been  substituted  for  the 
old-time  friction  and  bloodshed,  and  the  ranges  have  been  im- 
proved in  many  ways.  It  is  estimated  that  the  carrying  ca- 
pacity of  the  Forest  ranges  from  1905  to  1920  has  been  increased 
15  to  30  per  cent,  20  per  cent  being  the  average,  all  localities 
considered.  There  is  still  room  for  much  improvement;  but, 
if  one  may  judge  from  the  remarkable  advancement  made  in 
little  more  than  a  decade,  the  restoration  of  the  lands  to  their 
original  productiveness  is  only  a  matter  of  time.  Just  how 
many  more  stock  the  National  Forest  ranges  will  support  in  1930 
than  the  number  carried  in  191 7  is  difficult  to  say,  but  it  is  esti- 
mated that  an  increase  of  between  15  and  20  per  cent  may  be 
expected.^ 

'  Barnes,  Will  C,  and  Jardine,  James  T.,  "Meat  Situation  in  the  United  States, 
Pt.  2:  Livestock  Production  in  the  Eleven  Far  Western  Range  States."  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.  Report  no,  p.  17,  1916. 


RESULTS  OF   REGULATED    GRAZING  29 

The  increase  in  the  production  of  livestock  on  the  National 
Forest  ranges  will  undoubtedly  enhance  the  money  value  of  the 
adjoining  farm  lands.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  public-range 
lands  are  further  curtailed,  the  farms  adjoining  the  Forests  will 
become  correspondingly  more  dependent  on  the  cool  summer 
Forest  ranges  than  they  are  even  at  the  present  moment.  As 
the  productivity  of  the  Forest  ranges  is  increased,  and  as  more 
livestock  can  consistently  be  permitted  on  them,  increased  agri- 
cultural development,  in  which  the  production  of  hay  and  con- 
centrates suitable  for  the  winter  feeding  of  livestock  will  consti- 
tute the  chief  feature,  is  sure  to  follow. 

The  belief  in  such  a  development  is  based  on  two  facts.  In  the 
first  place,  there  is  practically  no  more  unused  range  possessing 
the  essential  natural  facilities  for  the  rearing  of  stock,  upon  which 
the  industry  may  be  extended.  In  the  second  place,  stock 
raising  on  the  highly  improved  and  expensive  farm  lands,  devoid 
both  of  summer  and  winter  range,  can  not  be  materially  increased ; 
for  under  most  conditions  greater  profits  may  be  expected  on 
such  farms  from  merely  finishing  western-grown  stock  for  the 
packer  than  from  raising  the  animals  for  the  feed  yard. 

The  demand  for  grazing  permits  on  National  Forest  ranges, 
therefore,  is  sure  to  increase,  and  the  closest  possible  use  of  the 
forage  crop  may  be  expected.  Without  the  most  intensive  and 
judicious  utilization  of  the  forage  on  the  National  Forest  ranges 
each  year,  it  would  be  impossible  either  to  make  adequate  use  of 
the  feeds  grown  on  the  adjacent  farms  or  to  maintain  sufficient 
grazing  animals  to  make  adequate  use  of  the  desert  range,  the 
forage  of  which,  owing  to  the  lack  of  water  for  stock  purposes 
and  because  of  unfavorable  high  temperatures,  can  be  profitably 
used  only  during  the  winter  months.  The  use  of  these  winter 
ranges  makes  possible  the  running  of  far  more  stock  throughout 
the  year  than  could  possibly  be  taken  care  of  without  the  desert 
areas. 

To  develop,  maintain,  and  utilize  to  the  highest  possible 
degree  the  forage  resources  within  the  National  Forests  is  a 
matter  of  the  greatest  economic  importance  both  nationally  and 
locally.     Further,  the  judicious  management  of  these  range  re- 


30  NATIONAL  FOREST,   STATE,  AND  PRIVATE   LANDS 

sources  is  sure  to  be  continued  in  harmony  with  the  desired  pro- 
tection of  the  timber  and  the  watersheds,  as  well  as  with  other 
policies  of  local  and  national  importance. 

STATE  AND  PRIVATE  LANDS 

During  their  early .  settlement  certain  Western  States  were 
granted  tracts  of  agricultural  and  arid  lands  the  income  from 
which  was  to  be  used  for  educational  and  other  public  purposes. 
Furthermore,  where  the  railroad  became  necessary  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  country,  land  grants  were  acquired  from  the 
Government  by  railroad  companies.  For  example,  large  tracts 
of  farm  and  pasture  lands  were  granted  to  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad  Company  in  the  State  of  Washington.  Although  the 
railroad  lands,  like  those  in  State  ownership,  were  subject  to 
purchase,  they  were  at  first  in  little  demand;  for,  as  they  con- 
sisted mainly  of  grazing  lands  and  had  no  fences,  the  forage  crop 
could  easily  be  harvested  without  the  payment  of  grazing  charges. 
During  the  period  of  free  use,  the  State  lands,  like  those  of  the 
public  domain,  soon  became  seriously  depleted,  and  it  was  evi- 
dent that  some  method  of  control  was  essential.  A  system  of 
leasing  was  decided  upon  as  a  means  of  revenue,  and  also  be- 
cause the  State  and  other  officers  beheved  that  the  trespass  of 
stock  would  thereby  be  avoided,  that  the  original  carrying  capa- 
city of  the  lands  would  be  restored,  and  that  the  land  values 
themselves  would  be  correspondingly  increased. 

The  Texas  Leasing  System.  —  Prior  to  1879  the  State  lands 
of  Texas  brought  in  only  limited  revenues.  This  was  due  chiefly 
to  faulty  laws,  a  loose  system  of  management,  and  an  abundance 
of  low-priced,  privately  owned  lands.  For  a  long  time  the  inef- 
fective laws  resulted  in  a  popular  disregard  of  the  leasing  of 
State  lands,  while  at  the  same  time  the  pastures  were  being 
destructively  utilized.  It  was  not  until  1883,  when  the  Com- 
missioner of  the  Texas  Land  Office  made  effective  a  general  law 
calling  for  the  classification,  sale,  and  lease  of  all  State  lands, 
that  reasonable  revenues  were  received.  From  then  on,  all  acces- 
sible pasture  lands  were  leased  or  sold.  The  rental  varied  ac- 
cording to  the  character  of  the  land,  the  minimum  charge  being 


THE    NORTHERN   PACIFIC   RAILROAD   LEASES  31 

3  cents  per  acre ,  and  the  leases  extended  over  a  period  of  five  to 
ten  years.  This  charge  for  the  forage  crop  resulted  in  the  active 
purchase  of  the  pasture  lands,  the  price  of  which  in  1895  was 
reduced  from  $2  to  $1  per  acre. 

The  Wyoming  Leasing  System.  —  Of  the  many  States  that 
were  granted  lands,  Wyoming  is  an  exception  in  that  she  still 
retains  the  greater  part  of  her  grants.  In  the  administration 
of  the  Wyoming  State  lands,  it  was  provided  in  1891  that  no 
land  should  be  sold  at  less  than  $10  per  acre.^  As  most  of  the 
lands  are  arid  and  valuable  only  as  pasture,  purchases  have  been 
limited.  Here  the  maximum  period  of  rental  is  five  years,  and 
the  lands  are  rarely  rented  for  a  shorter  period.  The  usual 
rental  fee  is  from  25  to  5  cents  per  acre,  depending  upon  the  acces- 
sibility of  the  lands  and  of  the  water  supply  for  livestock  pur- 
poses. As  a  source  of  revenue  the  leasing  of  State  lands  in 
Wyoming  has  been  notably  successful.  With  the  steady  de- 
mand for  range  lands  between  1892  and  1902  the  rentals  in- 
creased from  $7,397  to  $95,925.  Tke  funds  are  devoted  to 
various  public  purposes. 

The  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  Leases.  —  The  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad  land  grants  acquired  from  the  Government  con- 
sisted of  the  odd-numbered  sections  in  a  strip  of  country  50 
miles  wide  on  each  side  of  the  railroad  line.  The  holdings  com- 
prised of  agricultural,  timber,  and  pasture  lands.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  policy  of  transportation  development,  the  lands 
were  sold  as  rapidly  as  possible.  It  was  soon  found,  however, 
that  the  treeless,  rocky  tracts  were  not  suited  to  reclamation 
by  irrigation  and  were  too  dry  for  ordinary  agricultural  purposes. 
An  examination  by  the  company  in  1895  showed  that  large  areas 
of  these  arid  lands  had  been  denuded  of  vegetation  by  over- 
grazing. It  was  evident  that,  in  order  to  avoid  loss  of  traffic 
to  the  company  and  at  the  same  time  to  dispose  of  the  lands 
advantageously,  something  had  to  be  done  to  improve  and  main- 
tain their  productivity.  Accordingly  a  system  of  leasing  was 
decided  upon. 

As  the  lands,  previously  used  without  cost,  were  now  seriously 
1  Revised  Statutes  of  Wyoming,  1899,  Sec.  821. 


32  NATIONAL   FOREST,   STATE,   AND    PRIVATE   LANDS 

depleted,  stockmen  in  the  beginning  refused  to  lease  the  pas- 
tures. Soon,  however,  sheep  raisers,  whose  stock  could  readily 
be  controlled  on  unfenced  lands  and  who  desired  to  put  their 
industry  on  a  firm  basis,  acquired  the  use  of  the  lands.  This 
naturally  forced  the  cattle  breeders  also  to  accept  the  leasing 
system,  as  they  feared  they  might  ultimately  have  no  pastures 
for  their  stock. 

The  first  lease  of  Northern  Pacific  lands  went  into  effect  July  i, 
1896.  Six  years  later  over  300  leases  were  in  force  covering  ap- 
proximately 1,500,000  acres  of  pasture  land.  Although  the 
leases  were  made  for  a  period  of  five  years,  it  was  not  the  ultimate 
object  of  the  company  to  estabhsh  a  permanent  system  of  leasing 
but  rather  to  demonstrate  that  the  productivity  of  the  lands, 
under  judicious  management,  could  be  restored,  and  thereby 
stimulate  their  purchase.  The  rental  fee  was  a  little  less  than 
2  cents  per  acre,  and  the  purchase  price  was  proportionately  low. 
As  soon  as  it  was  seen  that  the  lands  could  be  revegetated, 
extensive  sales  were  made,  and  in  a  few  years  the  pastures  were 
in  private  ownership.  In  this  way  the  leasing  system  had  its 
desired  effect. 

Benefits  of  the  Leasing  System.  —  A  great  many  advantages 
have  been  derived  from  the  leasing  system  as  applied  to  lands 
owned  by  States  and  those  owned  by  railroads.  The  effect  was 
that  of  substituting  an  orderly,  economical,  and  productive 
system  of  harvesting  the  natural  forage  crop  for  a  precarious, 
wasteful,  and  unproductive  one. 

Because  a  large  number  of  nomadic  cattle  and  horses  con- 
sumed much  of  the  spring,  autumn,  and  winter  feed  upon  which 
the  lessee  was  dependent,  fencing  of  the  leased  lands  was  imper- 
ative to  success.  Fencing  is  one  of  the  first  steps  towards  stock 
control  and  permanent  range  improvement.  With  the  fencing 
of  the  pasture  the  stockman  knows  exactly  the  acreage  upon 
which  he  must  depend.  By  supplementing  this  information 
with  observations  as  to  the  character  and  density  of  the  vege- 
tation, he  can  closely  estimate  the  number  of  animals  the  pasture 
will  safely  carry  year  after  year  (Fig.  8). 

The  leasing  system,  primarily  because  of  the  fencing  of  the 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE   PASTURES  33 

lands,  was  of  distinct  benefit  in  that  the  productivity  of  the 
depleted  pastures  was  improved,  and  the  profits  from  the  Hve- 
stock  business  were  increased. 


Fig.  8.  — FENCING  WAS  THE  FIRST  STEP  TOWARDS  RATIONAL  PASTURE  AND 
LIVESTOCK  MANAGEMENT  THAT  FOLLOWED  THE  ADOPTION  OF  THE  LEAS- 
ING  SYSTEM. 

The  control  of  the  number  of  stock  grazed  and  the  prevention  of  too  early  grazing  soon  resulted  in 
marked  improvement  in  the  forage  crop,  as  shown  by  the  growth  on  the  fenced  area  on  the  right. 

Improvement  of  the  Pastures.  —  The  more  important  benefits 
of  maintaining  the  productivity  of  the  pastures  were  as  follows: 

1.  The  time  for  utilizing  the  forage  crop  was  definitely  con- 
trolled. The  wasteful  and  destructive  practice,  in  operation 
on  the  open  range,  of  grazing  the  herbage  early  in  the  spring 
when  the  soil  was  saturated  with  moisture  and  the  grasses  were 
just  starting  to  grow  was  avoided.  Also,  by  means  of  division 
fences  suitable  herbage  was  conserved  for  definite  seasonal 
periods. 

2.  Destructive  grazing  was  avoided.  Knowledge  of  the  exact 
acreage  and  the  character  and  luxuriance  of  the  forage  stand, 
and  consequently  of  the  number  of  stock  the  pasture  would 
safely  support,  made  it  possible  to  maintain  the  lands  in  a  high 
state  of  productivity.  On  the  adjacent  public-domain  lands, 
where  stock  could  not  be  controlled,  the  herbage  was  excessively 
grazed  and  trampled  and  in  many  locaHties  completely  killed  out. 

3.  Water  facihties  in  many  localities  were  improved,  and  ex- 
cessive travel  of  stock  was  avoided.     Where  water  was  inade- 


34  NATIONAL   FOREST,   STATE,   AND   PRIVATE   LANDS 

quate  and  the  distance  between  watering  places  too  remote  for 
the  best  utiHzation  of  the  forage,  the  springs,  instead  of  being 
trampled  into  the  ground  as  formerly,  were  protected,  the  water 
was  conducted  into  troughs,  wells  were  dug  or  bored,  windmills 
were  erected,  and  reservoirs  and  dams  were  constructed.  Water 
development  was  a  particularly  prominent  feature  in  the  Texas 
leasing  system,  for  in  many  locahties  in  that  State  the  distances 
between  watering  places  were  so  great  that  it  had  not  previously 
been  possible  to  utilize  the  forage. 

Increased  Profits.  —  Larger  profits  were  realized  by  the  stock- 
man under  the  lease  plan  than  under  the  open-range  system, 
chiefly  for  three  reasons: 

1.  Improvement  was  made  in  the  breed  of  stock,  and  the 
annual  increase  in  the  offspring  was  larger.  As  soon  as  the 
pastures  were  fenced  there  was  apparent  improvement  in  the 
quahty  of  animals  reared,  especially  of  cattle  and  horses.  Loss 
due  to  straying  was,  of  course,  avoided,  inferior  males  were 
eUminated,  and  full  use  was  made  of  the  more  desirable  breeding 
animals.  It  was  possible  also  to  maintain  a  correct  balance 
between  males  and  females  to  insure  a  maximum  armual  in- 
crease. 

2.  Improved  methods  were  employed  in  handling  the  stock 
and  at  less  cost  than  on  the  open  range.  The  fence,  of  coufse, 
made  the  herder  unnecessary;  and,  as  the  stock  was  allowed  to 
graze  undisturbed,  the  animals  traveled  less  and  made  better 
gains  than  when  they  were  molested  by  a  rider.  Moreover, 
rounding  up  the  stock  for  branding  and  for  marketing  could  be 
done  promptly  and  cheaply  and  with  little  disturbance  to  the 
animals. 

3.  Supplemental  feeding  and  improved  water  facilities  were 
provided  where  practicable.  Many  lessees  made  a  practice  of 
growing  hay,  Kafir  corn,  and  other  supplemental  feeds.  In  this 
way  the  number  of  stock  maintained  on  a  leasehold  was  some- 
times doubled.  Supplemental  feeding  could  not,  of  course,  be 
practiced  where  the  stock  was  not  under  control.  As  a  result 
of  the  development  of  water  facilities  and  the  freeing  of  the  stock 
from  the  necessity  for  excessive  travel,  better  gains  were  made, 


QUESTIONS  35 

less  forage  was  trampled  out,  and  more  livestock  could  be  sup- 
ported. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  When  were  the  first  National  Forests  created?  What  led  up  to  this 
action? 

2.  What  was  the  approximate  acreage  of  the  National  Forests  on  June  30, 
1921? 

3.  What  portion  of  the  National  Forest  lands  is  grazed? 

4.  How  many  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  are  grazed  annually  on  the  National 
Forests? 

5.  Were  sheep  permitted  on  aU  the  National  Forests  when  the  Forests 
were  first  created? 

6.  Distinguish  between  prescriptive  rights  and  a  license,  as  related  to  the 
grazmg  of  Forest  ranges,  and  discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
each. 

7.  Do  grazing  privileges  on  National  Forests  in  the  United  States  ultimately 
estabhsh  property  or  prescriptive  rights? 

8.  (a)  Explain  how  the  prescriptive  rights  became  established  in  the  German 
states,  {b)  What  effect  have  such  rights  had  on  the  reproduction  and  establish- 
ment of  certain  timber  species? 

9.  Distinguish  between  a  grazing  permit  and  a  range  lease. 

10.  How  and  to  what  extent  are  farm  lands  adjacent  to  National  Forests 
dependent  upon  the  utilization  of  the  Forest  ranges? 

11.  What  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  grazing-permit  system  on  National 
Forest  ranges? 

12.  Who  is  entitled  to  enjoy  grazing  privileges  on  our  National  Forests? 

13.  What  has  the  regulation  of  grazing  accomplished  on  National  Forest 
ranges  since  its  adoption?    Why? 

14.  What  is  the  probable  influence  of  increased  livestock  production  on 
National  Forest  ranges  on  the  value  of  adjoining  farm  lands?    Why? 

15.  What  are  the  possibilities  of  increasing  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
Forest  ranges?    How  much  increase  may  be  expected? 

16.  What  factors  were  conducive  to  the  adoption  of  the  leasing  of  State 
and  railroad  lands? 

17.  In  what  state  of  productivity  were  the  State  and  railroad  lands  at  the 
time  of  the  adoption  of  the  leasing  system? 

18.  (a)  What  rental  did  the  State  of  Texas  receive  for  the  most  of  her 
lands?  Wyoming?  (/>)  For  what  period  of  time  were  the  leases  issued  in 
the  two  States  named? 

19.  Explain  why  Wyoming  still  retains  much  of  the  land  originally 
granted  her. 

20.  At  what  price  can  the  Wyoming  State  lands  be  purchased? 


36  NATIONAL  FOREST,   STATE,   AND   PRIVATE  LANDS 

21.  (a)  Why  were  the  sheep  raisers  first  to  take  advantage  of  lands  offered 
for  lease  by  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  Company?  (h)  What  effect  did  this 
have  on  the  attitude  of  the  cattle  raisers  relative  to  leasing? 

22.  Discuss  fully  what  the  leasing  system  accomplished  in  (a)  controlling 
and  stabilizing  grazing;  (b)  improving  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  lands; 
(c)  promoting  a  closer  utilization  of  the  forage  crop;  and  (d)  increasing  the 
profits  from  livestock. 

23.  How  did  the  issuance  of  long-time  leases  affect  the  development  of 
water  facilities  and  improve  the  breeding  of  stock? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Barnes,  Will  C.    Western  Grazing  Grounds  and  Forest  Ranges.     Sanders 

Pub.  Co.  (Breeders  Gaz.),  Chicago,  1913. 
BoERKER,  R.  H.  D.     Our  National  Forests.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y., 

1918. 
Fernow,  B.  E.     a  Brief  History  of  Forestry.     Univ.  Press,  Toronto,  1913. 
Economics  of  Forestry.     T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1902. 
Facts  and  Figures  Regarding  Our  Forest  Resources.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.,  Div.  of  Forestry,  Cir.  11,  1896. 
Forest  Service.     National  Forest  Manual.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 
Graves,  Henry  S.     Farm  Woodlands  and  the  War.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 
Yearbook,  1918. 
Forest  Preservation.     Smithsonian  Institution,  Annual  Report,  1910. 
The  National  Forests  and  the  Farmer.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Yearbook, 

1914. 
A  PoUcy  of  Forestry  for  the  Nation.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  OflSce  of 
Secretary,  Cir.  148,  1919. 
Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark.     Range  Management  on  the 

National  Forests.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  19x9- 
Potter,   Albert   F.     Administration   of   Grazing   in   National   Forests. 

Amer.  Nat'l  Livestock  Assoc'n,  1913. 
Roth,  Filibert.     Grazing  in  the  Forest  Reserves.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 
Yearbook,  1901. 


PART  TWO 

PASTURE  REVEGETATION  AND  FORAGE 
MAINTENANCE 


CHAPTER  III 

RESEEDING   WESTERN    GRAZING   LANDS   TO 
CULTIVATED   FORAGE   PLANTS 

The  native  western  grazing  grounds  for  the  most  part  are 
located  in  what  is  popularly  known  as  the  arid  region.  The 
vegetation  varies  in  density  from  a  complete  cover,  as  on  the 
much-restricted  meadows,  where  lo  to  12  acres  will  support  a 
cow  for  a  year,  to  a  growth  so  sparse  that  100  acres  will  barely 
maintain  an  animal  the  year  through.  Over  the  greater  part 
of  the  range,  25  to  35  acres,  waste  lands  included,  will  support 
a  cow  for  a  year.  This  low  forage  production  is  the  result 
chiefly  of  limited  rainfall,  but  overgrazing  and  other  forms 
of  range  abuse  are  also  responsible  for  the  low  grazing  capacity. 

It  is  natural  to  hope  that  some  good  forage  plant  may  be  dis- 
covered that  will  completely  occupy  the  soil  of  this  vast  arid 
region,  drive  out  the  pestiferous  weeds,  and  give  character  to 
the  landscape.  Such  a  plant  has  not  as  yet  been  found.  Native 
pasture  lands  can  not  be  made  to  perform  miracles.  Many 
stockmen  and  range  investigators  have  learned  through  costly 
experience  and  wide  experimentation  that  cultivated  forage 
plants  will  not  yield  heavily  —  if,  indeed,  they  will  grow  at  all  — 
where  the  virgin  native  vegetation  at  best  is  sparse  and  com- 
posed only  of  drought-enduring  species.  To  produce  a  good 
crop  of  clover,  timothy,  orchardgrass,  or  some  other  valuable 
grass  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  so  low  that  "  dry  farming  " 
of  the  most  intensive  and  scientific  kind  fails  to  yield  economical 
returns,  would  require  a  weird  brand  of  magic. 

Because  of  the  generally  low  yielding  capacity  of  the  less- 
elevated  stretches  of  range  and  the  ruggedness  of  the  more 
humid,  elevated  tracts,  it  is  impracticable  to  plow  the  soil  or 
otherwise  put  much  money  into  the  preparation  of  the  seed- 
bed.    Clearly  any  practicable  plan  of  reseeding  range  lands  must 

39 


40  RESEEDING  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS 

find  other  methods  and  implements  than  those  upon  wliich  the 
farmer  ordinarily  relies. 

PLANT  INTRODUCTION   ON  ARID   LANDS 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  grow  cultivated  plants  on 
the  more  arid,  sparsely  vegetated  range.  That  little  progress 
has  been  made  in  reseeding  such  lands  is  evident  from  several 
carefully  conducted  tests. 

Tests  in  Southern  Arizona.  —  The  most  extensive  tests  in 
seeding  native  forage  plants  were  conducted  by  Griffiths/ 
Thornber,"  and  Wooton,'  between  1900  and  1916. 

Griffiths's  studies  were  confined  to  trials  with  introduced  and 
native  forage  plants  upon  the  mesa  lands,  where  not  less  than 
200  plant  species  were  tested  in  a  fenced  pasture.  The  seeding 
was  done  in  both  spring  and  fall.  In  some  tests  the  ground  was 
worked  up  sufficiently  to  kill  a  goodly  portion  of  the  native 
vegetation.  Notwithstanding  these  carefully  conducted  tests 
and  the  special  soil  treatment,  most  of  the  introduced  plants 
failed  even  to  gain  a  foothold.  Only  one  introduced  species, 
namely,  allilaria  (Erodium  cicutarium),  gave  results,  and  those 
were  of  limited  practical  value.     Griffiths  concludes: 

The  net  economic  results  of  all  this  foreign  introduction  has  been  practically 
nil.  Most  of  the  species  in  our  experience  have  never  come  up,  and  the  few 
things  that  did  make  any  growth  usually  died  before  seed  was  produced. 

Thornber,  experimenting  on  a  range  reserve  near  Tucson, 
Arizona,  after  finding  that  experimental  seedings  failed  on  the 
drier  lands,  attempted  a  series  of  experiments  on  similar  areas, 
some  of  which  were  irrigated.  The  increased  water  supply  was 
procured  by  the  construction  of  dams,  by  means  of  which  flood 
water  was  conserved.  Such  valuable  native  species  as  blue 
grama  {Bouteloua  gracilis)  and  hairy  grama  {B.  hirsuta)  pro- 
duced a  fairly  good  cover  where  the  lands  were  amply  watered. 

^  Griffiths,  David,  "A  Protected  Stock  Range  in  Arizona."  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  177,  p.  12,  1910. 

2  Thornber,  J.  J.,  "The  Grazing  Ranges  of  .\rizona."  Arizona  Agr.  E.xp.  Sta. 
Bui.  65,  p.  312,  1910. 

^  Wooton,  E.  O.,  "Carrying  Capacity  of  Grazing  Ranges  in  Southern  Arizona." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  367,  p.  38,  1916. 


SEEDING  TESTS  IN  NORTHERN  ARIZONA  41 

The  stand  gradually  died  out,  however,  when  irrigation  was 
discontinued.  Other  species  gave  practically  the  same  results. 
Thornber  reports : 

No  introduced  forage  plants,  including  species  from  cool,  moist  climates 
and  the  higher  elevations,  made  any  growth  on  the  small  range  enclosure, 
and  but  few  of  them  persisted  in  the  forage  garden  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time.  Both  the  native  and  Australian  saltbushes  failed  repeatedly  to 
secure  a  hold  or  make  any  growth  of  extended  duration,  though  they  were 
planted  on  land  occasionally  flooded  with  storm  water. 

Wooton's  reseeding  studies  on  the  Santa  Rita  Range  Re- 
serve near  Tucson,  Arizona,  substantiated  the  findings  of 
Griffiths  and  Thornber,  for  practically  all  attempts  to  intro- 
duce forage  plants  gave  negative  results.  In  a  few  tests  it  was 
found  that  introduced  plants  like  alfilaria  and  certain  other 
aggressive  annuals  gave  temporary  promise  of  fair  returns,  but 
in  a  few  years  they  were  crowded  out  by  the  native  vegetation. 

Seeding  Tests  in  Northern  Arizona.  —  Pearson/  between 
1909  and  1 9 13,  conducted  a  series  of  range  reseeding  experi- 
ments at  the  Fort  Valley  Forest  Experiment  Station  near 
Flagstaff,  Arizona.  The  plants  tested  were  Hungarian  brome- 
grass,  Kentucky  bluegrass,  orchardgrass,  Italian  ryegrass,  red- 
top,  timothy,  and  the  more  drought-enduring  varieties  of  al- 
falfa. 

In  some  of  the  experiments  the  ground  was  thoroughly  har- 
rowed before  sowing,  the  seed  being  scattered  broadcast  and 
covered  by  means  of  a  brush  drag.  On  other  plots  the  ground 
was  harrowed  and  the  seed  broadcasted  but  not  covered.  In 
stiU  other  tests  the  seed  was  sown  on  unprepared  ground  and 
left  uncovered.  The  experimental  plots  were  fenced  against 
stock. 

The  area  seeded  was  an  open  park  in  the  yellow  pine  type, 
lying  at  an  elevation  of  about  7,300  feet.  The  soil  was  a  deep 
sandy  to  clayey  loam.  An  adequate  amount  of  fertile  seed  was 
used.     Pearson's  conclusions  follow. 

^  Pearson,  G.  A.,  "Studies  in  Artificial  Reseeding:  Introduction  of  Forage 
Plants."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Review  of  Forest  Service  Investigations,  Vol.  2, 
pp.  9-13,  1913. 


42  RESEEDING  WESTERN   GR.\ZING   LANDS 

All  of  the  species  sown  under  range  conditions  proved  to  be  failures.  The 
establishment  of  timothy  is  of  little  consequence  for  range  purposes,  because 
it  succeeded  only  in  wet  conditions,  which  are  rarely  found  on  the  range  in 
this  region. 

Timothy,  alfalfa,  bromegrass,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  other  species  could 
probably  be  established  through  persistent  efforts  by  plowing  the  ground 
and  sowing  during  the  summer  season.    .     .     . 

It  is  not  believed  that  the  introduction  of  any  of  these  species,  either  under 
range  conditions  or  under  cultivation,  is  practicable.  Native  grasses  are 
hardier,  and  if  given  equal  chances  will  produce  more  forage  on  the  range 
than  any  of  these  species.  While  they  might  succeed  under  cultivation,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  any  of  the  species  would  produce  as  heavily  as  oats  or  wheat, 
which  now  yield  from  i  ^  to  3  tons  of  hay  per  acre  without  irrigation. 

Since  many  native  plants  of  high  forage  value  have  been  proved  to  be 
adapted  to  this  region,  they  should  be  given  the  preference  in  reseeding  experi- 
ments. 

Further  experiments  under  intensive  cultivation  are  not  recommended, 
because  such  methods  are  not  apphcable  to  range  conditions. 

Like  many  other  investigators,  Pearson  recognizes  the  impor- 
tance of  so  husbanding  the  range  as  to  foster  the  reproduction 
of  the  desirable  native  forage  plants. 

PLANT  INTRODUCTION  ON  MOUNTAIN  OR  SEMI-HUMID  LANDS 

The  possibihties  of  successfully  seeding  valuable  forage  plants 
on  mountain  meadows  and  similar  areas  where  the  rainfall  is 
relatively  heavy  are  considerably  greater  than  on  the  less- 
elevated  arid  lands  discussed.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowl- 
edge that  many  portions  of  the  seriously  overgrazed  mountain 
meadows  and  well-drained  parks  have  exceedingly  fertile  soils 
and  originally  produced  a  large  native  forage  crop  of  high 
quahty,  but  now  support  few  or  no  valuable  range  plants.  It  is 
evident  that  the  native  plants  can  not  be  reestablished  where 
the  original  vegetation  has  been  completely  destroyed  and  the 
land  left  in  a  denuded  condition.  If  such  land  is  to  be  restocked 
within  a  reasonable  length  of  time,  seed  from  forage  plants 
adapted  to  the  local  conditions  must  be  introduced. 

These  seriously  overgrazed  lands  differed  so  widely  in  soD  and 
growth  conditions  that,  before  any  great  amount  of  seeding  was 
done,  it  was  necessary,  through  carefully  planned  experiments, 


PLANT   INTRODUCTION  ON   MOUNTAIN  LANDS  43 

to  obtain  detailed  information  concerning  the  natural  factors 
which  limit  the  successful  apphcation  of  reseeding  to  cultivated 
plants,  the  adaptabihty  of  various  species  of  plants  to  the  vari- 
ous sets  of  conditions,  the  methods  which  will  procure  the  best 
results,  and  the  question  of  cost  and  returns.  In  other  words, 
it  was  necessary  to  find  out  where  reseeding  can  be  brought  about, 
what  are  the  most  effective  means,  and  whether  these  means  will 

pay- 
In  1908  Cotton^  reported  the  results  of  a  series  of  reseeding 
experiments  in  mountain  meadows  of  the  Pacific  coast  region. 
These  experiments  showed  that  the  grazing  capacity  of  the  better- 
watered  lands  may  be  increased  considerably  by  seeding  these 
lands  to  certain  cultivated  grasses.  The  conclusions  were 
that  timothy  and  redtop  are  the  most  promising  grasses  for 
seeding  such  areas. 

The  artificial  reseeding  of  mountain  lands  was  widely  extend- 
ed by  Sampson,^  who  from  1907  to  1922  directed  more  than 
600  reseeding  experiments  on  the  National  Forest  range,  using 
various  cultivated  grasses  and  other  herbaceous  forage  plants. 
These  experiments  have  thrown  considerable  light  on  the  species 
best  suited  to  the  different  conditions,  on  the  cost  of  reseeding, 
on  the  methods  of  scattering  and  planting  the  seed,  on  how  to 
crop  the  lands  with  minimum  injury  to  the  young  stand,  and  on 
the  forage  increment  that  may  be  expected  from  reseeding. 

In  these  experiments  the  following  14  grasses  and  8  species 
other  than  grasses  were  tested :  ^ 

Grasses 

1.  Broom^rass  (Andropogon  spp.). 

2.  Canada  bluegrass  (Poa  compressa).* 

3.  Slender  wheatgrass  {Agropyron  tenerum). 

4.  Blue  gramagrass  (Bouteloua  gracilis). 

'  Cotton,  J.  S.,  "The  Improvement  of  Mountain  Meadows."  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  127,  1908. 

-  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "The  Reseeding  of  Depleted  Grazing  Lands  to  Culti- 
vated Forage  Plants."     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  4,  1913. 

'  The  asterisks  indicate  the  10  species  most  frequently  used  in  the  tests  because 
of  the  promise  which  they  showed  early  in  the  experiment. 


44  RESEEDING  WESTERN   GRAZING  LANDS 

5.  Hard  fescue  {Festuca  duriuscula). 

6.  Italian  ryegrass  {Lolium  Italicum).* 

7.  Kentucky  bluegrass  (Poa  pratensis)* 

8.  Mesquitegrass  (Hilaria  Belangeri). 

9.  Ochardgrass  {Dactylis  glomerata)* 

10.  Perennial  ryegrass  {Lolium  perenne). 

11.  Redtop  {Agrostis  paluslris)* 

12.  Hungarian  brome  (Bromus  inermis).* 

13.  Tall  meadow  oatgrass  {Arrhenatherum  elatius). 

14.  Timothy  {Phleum  pratense).* 

Broad-leaved  Herbs 

1.  Alfalfa  {Medicago  sativa). 

2.  Alfilaria  {Er odium  cicutarium). 

3.  Alsike  clover  {Trifolium  hybridum).* 

4.  Australian  saltbush  {A  triplex  semibaccata) . 

5.  Bur  clover  {Medicago  denticulata) . 

6.  Japanese  clover  {Lespedeza  striata). 

7.  Red  clover  {Trifolium  pratense).* 

8.  White  clover  {Trifolium  repens).* 

Conditions  of  the  Experiments.  —  Between  1907  and  1913  the 
mountain  reseeding  tests  were  conducted  in  every  State  west  of 
the  Texas  and  Dakota  line.  The  plots  were  located  where  the 
need  for  forage  was  greatest.  The  areas  seeded  varied  in  ele- 
vation from  about  4,000  to  11,000  feet.  Detailed  studies  were 
conducted  by  the  author  in  the  Blue  Mountains  of  northeast- 
ern Oregon. 

In  this  wide  latitudinal  and  elevational  range  the  more  im- 
portant soil  types  and  climatic  characteristics  were  included. 
The  growing  season  varied  from  about  six  months  on  the  lower 
lands  to  no  more  than  two  and  a  half  months  at  the  higher 
elevations. 

In  all  experiments  the  seed  was  scattered  broadcast,  either 
by  machine  or  by  hand.  In  most  of  the  tests  the  soil  was  given 
no  culture  before  seeding,  but  generally  the  lands  were  closely 
cropped  before  the  seed  was  scattered.     The  seed  was  usually 


SUCCESS   OF  THE   VARIOUS   SPECIES  45 

worked  lightly  into  the  ground  by  means  of  a  brush  or  wooden- 
peg  harrow,  or  trampled  in  by  sheep. 

RESULTS   OF  THE  TESTS 

Success  of  the  Various  Species.  —  Of  the  449  original  widely 
scattered  seeding  tests  under  way  at  one  time,  168,  or  37.42 
per  cent,  were  failures;  112,  or  24.95  P^^"  cent,  were  partial 
successes;  71,  or  15.81  per  cent,  were  fully  successful;  64,  or 
14.25  per  cent,  were  undeterminable  at  the  end  of  the  obser- 
vational period;  and  in  34  experiments,  or  7.57  per  cent  of  the 
total,  the  results  were  not  dehnitely  declared. 

By  far  the  best  results  immediately  following  reseeding  were 
obtained  with  timothy,  64.4  per  cent  of  all  trials  being  successful 
or  partially  successful.  Next  in  the  order  of  successful  results 
were  Hungarian  bromegrass  with  58.14  per  cent,  perennial 
ryegrass  with  50  per  cent,  Italian  ryegrass  with  37.5  per  cent, 
Kentucky  bluegrass  with  31.82  per  cent,  and  redtop  with  ^,^-33 
per  cent  (Figs.  9  and  10).  It  is  significant  that  the  more  drought- 
enduring  species,  such  as  Hungarian  bromegrass,  rank  among 
the  first  in  the  successful  seeding. 

Few  of  the  broad-leaved  herbs  gave  economical  returns. 
White  and  Alsike  clovers,  however,  did  best.  These  clovers, 
like  Kentucky  and  Canada  bluegrasses,  redtop,  and  certain 
other  sod-formers,  are  slow  to  become  established,  but  once  they 
gain  a  foothold  they  are  not  readily  killed  out.  In  general, 
the  best  results  were  obtained  from  the  tests  in  the  Northwest, 
where  the  rainfall  is  moderately  heavy;  the  poorest  results  fol- 
lowed the  tests  in  the  Southwest,  notably  in  the  lower  and  drier 
sites.^ 

Since  the  results  of  the  original  449  reseeding  tests  were  de- 
clared, the  writer  has  conducted  a  large  number  of  trials  in  the 
Wasatch  Mountains  of  central  Utah.  The  cultivated  species 
most  extensively  used  were  Alsike  and  white  clovers,  Hungarian 
bromegrass,  Italian  ryegrass,  Kentucky  bluegrass,  orchard- 
grass,  redtop,  and  timothy. 

1  As  pointed  out,  no  cultivated  plant  yet  discovered  can  be  successfully  seeded 
in  the  hot,  dry  foothills,  such  as  characterize  large  areas  in  the  Southwest. 


46 


RESEEDIXG  WESTERN   GRAZING   LANDS 


.....:vi:«; 

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Fig.  9— a  BURNED-OVER  FOREST  RANGE  AT  AN  ALTITUDE  OF  s.ooo  FEET. 
The  predominating  vegetation  consisted  of  "pinegrass,"  or  reedgrass  (Calamagrostis),  yarrow,  and 
fireweed.    The  area  was  sown  to  timothy  and  redtop.    The  soil  is  rich  and  above  the  average 

in  moisture  conditions. 


■''^'^^^^^^^^m^ 

m 

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^^l^^^^^^^^^^^B 

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1 

Jtlk.il-...    .1,1>'      ,.-,:.:.>.■■.■»'■               ■■       '              ',  .  'J?" 

mitiqiiiitmbmi^^ 

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psp 

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Fig.  ic  — same  AREA  AS   SHOWN   IN  FIGURE  9.  TWO  YEARS   AFTER   SEEDING. 

The  native  vegetation  has  been  almost  completely  replaced  by  the  introduced  grasses.     Two-thirds 

of  the  cover  is  composed  of  timothy.    A  brush  harrow  was  dragged  over  the  area  to  cover  the  seed. 


SEASON   FOR  SOWING 


47 


Approximately  60  per  cent  of  all  the  tests  here  conducted,  as 
analyzed  in  1922,  were  successful  or  partially  successful.  It  is 
significant  that  Hungarian  bromegrass,  with  76  per  cent  of  the 
trials  successful  or  partially  successful,  outranked  timothy, 
which,  however,  was  second  best  in  yielding  capacity.  These 
species  were  followed,  in  the  order  named,  by  Kentucky  blue- 
grass,  Canada  bluegrass,  white  clover,  red  top,  and  orchardgrass. 

Season  for  Sowing.  —  In  the  Northwest,  and  as  far  south  as 
Utah  and  northern  Nevada,  seeding  in  the  fall  appeared  to  give 
better  results  than  at  any  other  season.  The  autumn-sown 
areas  were  superior  to  those  seeded  in  the  spring  in  that  (i) 
germination  took  place  more  promptly,  (2)  the  development  of 
the  seedlings  was  more  uniform,  and  (3)  the  loss  of  seedlings 
from  adverse  conditions  was  less  (Fig.  11). 


0.  30 


LEGEND 

SUCCESSES  AND  PARTIAL 

SUCCESSES 

Fig.  II.  — results  OF   SEASONAL   RESEEDING  TESTS  ON  MOUNTAIN  RANGE 
LANDS   IN  THE  WEST. 

In  the  mountains,  from  central  Utah  and  central  Nevada,  and 
throughout  the  Southwest,  spring  or  early-summer  seeding  gave 
better  results  than  did  autumn  seeding.  In  this  region  the 
soil  usually  becomes  so  dry  late  in  the  spring  that  a  goodly 
proportion  of  the  seedlings  originating  from  seed  scattered  in 


48  RESEEDING  WESTERN   GRAZING  LANDS 

the  autumn  are  killed  before  the  summer  rains  come.  When 
the  seed  is  scattered  shortly  before  the  summer  rains  begin,  say- 
early  in  July,  a  good  stand  may  be  expected. 

Causes  of  Failure.  —  An  analysis  of  the  causes  of  failure  in 
the  unsuccessful  tests  may  aid  the  stockman  to  avoid  seeding 
unfavorable  sites.  The  chief  causes  of  failure,  given  in  the 
order  of  importance,  are  as  follows:  (i)  Lack  of  soil  treatment; 
(2)  drought;  (3)  unsuitable  species;  (4)  failure  of  the  species 
sown  to  compete  successfully  with  the  native  vegetation; 
(5)  wrong  time  of  sowing;   (6)  overgrazing. 

It  is  encouraging  to  note  that  the  factors  which  are  generally 
responsible  for  the  failures  are  largely  controllable.  Failure  due 
to  excessive  drought,  for  instance,  may  be  largely  avoided  by 
seeding  only  those  lands  which  are  so  located  as  to  receive  more 
than  average  rainfall.  The  wrong  selection  of  species  is  avoid- 
able if  the  requirements  of  the  species  with  respect  to  soil, 
moisture,  altitude,  and  growth  are  known.  Clearly,  such 
matters  as  soil  treatment,  season  of  sowing,  and  avoidance  of 
overgrazing  are  within  the  control  of  man. 

Suitable  Cultural  Implements.  —  The  proper  treatment  of 
the  soil,  following  the  scattering  of  the  seed,  is  so  important  as 
to  warrant  a  consideration  of  the  use  of  suitable  implements 
for  this  purpose. 

If  timber  is  available,  a  brush  harrow  constructed  from  a 
few  saplings  or  the  tops  of  pine  or  some  other  stifT-leaved  tree, 
cut  into  lengths  of  about  6  feet  and  laid  parallel  to  each  other 
at  intervals  of  about  a  foot,  is  an  effective  implement.  The 
brush  is  held  together,  as  in  a  vise,  between  the  parts  of  a  5-foot 
crosspiece.  Such  a  harrow  can  be  dragged  readily  over  the 
ground  by  a  rope  attached  to  the  saddle  horn  (Fig.  12). 

On  lands  where  the  soil  tends  to  become  baked,  the  use  of  a 
wooden-peg  "  A  "  harrow  is  satisfactory  (Fig.  13).  The  frame- 
work is  made  from  a  log  about  6  inches  in  diameter,  cut  into  three 
lengths  of  about  5  feet.  These  are  fitted  together  into  the 
shape  of  a  letter  "  A  "  and  the  ends  secured.  Holes  about  i 
inch  in  diameter  are  made  through  the  logs  at  intervals  of  about 
5  inches,  and  teeth  made  from  tree  branches  cut  to  uniform 


SUITABLE   CULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS 


49 


(Forest  Service,  by  the  Author.) 
Fig.  12.  — a  brush  HARROW  IN  USE. 
This  simple  implement  can  be  constructed  in  a  short  time  with  materials  that  are  usually  available. 


iForcsl  Service,  by  the  Author.) 
Fig.  13.  — a  wooden-peg  "A"  HARROW,  SUITED  FOR  USE  ON  PACKED  SOIL. 
An  ax  and  a  i-inch  auger  are  the  only  tools  needed  in  its  construction. 


50  RESEEDING  WESTERN   GRAZING   LANDS 

lengths  of  about  6  inches  are  driven  through.  The  harrow  may 
be  dragged  over  the  ground  by  a  rope  attached  to  the  saddle 
horn.  An  ax  and  a  i-inch  auger  are  the  only  tools  needed  in 
the  construction  of  this  harrow. 

Sheep  are  sometimes  used  to  trample  in  the  seed.  After  close 
grazing,  sheep  driven  in  a  compact  body  two  or  three  times  over 
the  seeded  area  do  a  satisfactory  job  of  planting.  On  bunch- 
grass  range,  where  the  tussocks  of  the  native  vegetation  would 
be  torn  asunder  by  harrowing,  sheep  are  especially  recommended 
for  the  seed  planting.  Heavy  trampUng  of  the  soil  during  wet 
weather  should,  however,  be  avoided. 

Scattering  the  Seed.  —  Various  inexpensive  methods  of  scat- 
tering the  seed  uniformly  over  the  area  have  been  used.  A 
compact  hand  seeder  is  satisfactory,  but  an  experienced  man 
may  obtain  good  seed  distribution  by  scattering  the  seed  by 
hand.  Windy  days,  however,  should  be  avoided  for  this  op- 
eration. It  is  safest  to  make  double  sowings.  When  this 
method  is  employed,  half  the  quantity  of  the  seed  is  sown  by 
passing  up  and  down  the  area  and  the  other  half  by  crossing  at 
right  angles  to  the  first  sowing.  If  more  than  one  species  is 
being  sown,  the  seed  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  before  it  is 
scattered. 

Elevational  Limitations  of  Reseeding.  —  Because  of  the  tem- 
perature and  the  short  growing  season,  elevation  is  not  uncom- 
monly a  Hmiting  factor  in  range  seeding.  In  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains of  eastern  Oregon  fair  stands  of  timothy,  Kentucky  blue- 
grass,  and  red  top  were  obtained  at  elevations  as  high  as  7,800 
feet  above  sea  level.  At  an  elevation  of  about  5,000  feet  the 
plants  grew  luxuriantly;  they  not  only  produced  satisfactory 
height  growth  but  developed  an  abundance  of  fertile  seed. 
Above  an  elevation  of  about  7,500  feet  the  height  growth  and 
leaf  development  were  greatly  reduced,  and  the  yield  ratio  was 
approximately  i  to  4  as  compared  with  seeding  at  an  elevation 
of  5,000  feet.  This  relationship  is  shown  in  Figure  14,  which 
pictures  the  relative  development  of  the  fleshy  stems  and  of  the 
roots.  Also  at  the  higher  elevations  the  stand  was  seldom  good. 
Moreover,   nonsodding    plants,   Uke    timothy,   are    short-lived, 


ELEVATIONAL  LIMITATIONS  OF  RESEEDING 


51 


and,  because  no  fertile  seed  is  produced,  the  stand  usually  disap- 
pears in  a  few  years. 

The  elevational  limitation  in  seeding  varies  appreciably  with 
latitude  and  is  approximately  2,500  feet  higher  in  southern  New 
Mexico   than  in  northern  Washington.     In  the  Northwest  it 


Fig.  14. —  relation  OF   YIELD   OF  TIMOTHY  TO   ELEVATION. 

The  three  stems  to  the  left  represent  a  stand  of  timothy  produced  on  range  in  Oregon  at  an  elevation 
of  s,ooo  feet  above  sea  level.  The  three  on  the  right  were  grown  at  an  elevation  of  7,500  feet. 
The  size  of  the  stems  is  a  direct  inde.x  of  the  forage  yield. 


seldom  pays  to  reseed  at  elevations  in  excess  of  about  7,500  feet 
above  sea  level,  whereas  in  southern  California  good  stands  have 
been  obtained  at  an  altitude  of  about  10,000  feet. 

The  native  vegetation  itself  furnishes  the  most  reliable  basis 
for  determining  the  maximum  elevation  at  which  seeding  may 
pay.  Where  the  alpine  vegetation  becomes  scrubby  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  elevation  is  in  excess  of  that  at  which  seeding  is 
practicable.  No  seeding  to  cultivated  plants  should  be  attemp- 
ted above  true  timberline.  In  general  it  may  be  stated  that 
seeding  will  not  pay  within  about  1,000  to  1,500  feet  of  timber- 
line,  an  elevation  at  which  the  timberline  trees  do  not  make 
good  development.  The  efifect  of  elevation  on  growth  is  ap- 
parent at  both  extremes.  At  very  high  elevations  seeding  is 
unsatisfactory  because  of  the  short  growing  season  and  the  low 


52  RESEEDING  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS 

temperature;  at  low  elevations,  as  in  the  arid-plains  region, 
seeding  may  fail  because  of  the  low  rainfall  and  the  frequent 
periods  of  protracted  drought. 

What  Grasses  to  Sow.  —  In  selecting  plants  for  pasture, 
only  those  should  be  used  that  remain  green  and  palatable  so 
that  stock  will  crop  them  with  relish  over  a  long  period.  They 
should  make  a  heavy  yield;  they  should  be  palatable  through- 
out the  season  (even  after  the  herbage  dries  it  should  be  relished 
and  retain  its  highly  nutritive  qualities);  and  they  should  by 
all  means  be  well  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions 
peculiar  to  the  locaHty. 

No  species  has  given  larger  yields,  at  least  for  the  first  two  or 
three  seasons,  under  a  diversity  of  range  conditions,  than  tim- 
othy. Furthermore,  the  cost  of  the  seed  is  lower  than  that  of 
any  of  the  more  promising  species.  When  once  well  estabhshed, 
a  timothy  cover  is  not  readily  injured  by  trampling,  but  it 
is  much  less  permanent  than  that  of  Hungarian  bromegrass, 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  Canada  bluegrass,  white  clover,  and  cer- 
tain other  sod-forming  species.  The  latter-named  species  may 
be  relied  upon  to  yield  heavily  for  an  indefinite  period,  once  they 
are  well  estabhshed.  On  the  wetter  soils  redtop  yields  the  most 
heavily  of  the  plants  named.  Redtop  usually  yields  well  where- 
ever  timothy  thrives.  As  it  reproduces  mainly  by  rootstocks, 
its  establishment,  although  slow,  is  remarkably  tenacious. 

Among  the  nongrasses,  Alsike  and  the  white  clovers  yield 
well.  Lands  to  be  seeded  to  these  plants,  however,  should  be 
carefully  selected,  as  neither  species  does  well  on  very  dry  sites, 
or  on  cold,  saturated,  or  sour  soils. 

Amount  to  Sow  and  Cost  of  Seeding.  —  The  methods  used  in 
scattering  the  seed  and  the  soil  treatment  here  recommended 
make  the  cost  of  the  seed  itself  the  heaviest  item  of  expense. 
The  cost  per  hundred  pounds  of  choice  seed  of  the  most  prom- 
ising species  and  the  amount  of  good  seed  recommended  per 
acre  in  order  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  stand  on  soils  of  average 
fertility,  follow: 


MOISTURE   REQUIREMENTS  53 

Amount  of  Seed  and  Cost  per  Acre 


Species 


GRASSES 

Canada  bluegrass 

Slender  wheatgrass 

Hard  fescue 

Italian  ryegrass 

Kentucky  bluegrass 

Orchardgrass 

Perennial  ryegrass 

Redtop 

Hungarian  bromegrass 

Tall  meadow  oatgrass 

Timothy 

BROAD-LEA\TD  HERBS 

Alfalfa 

Alsike  clover 

Bur  clover 

Red  clover 

White  clover 


Pounds 
per  acre 

Cost  per 
hundred- 
weight 

20 

S14.OO 

20 

20.00 

15 

15.00 

20 

6.50 

20 

20.00 

IS 

15.00 

20 

7.00 

15 

15.00 

20 

15.00 

20 

15.00 

8 

8.00 

8 

10.00 

8 

20.00 

8 

10.00 

8 

25.00 

8 

25.00 

Cost  per 
acre 


$2.  80 
4.00 
2.25 
1.30 
4.00 
2.25 
1.40 
2.25 
3.00 
3.00 
.64 


In  an  estimate  of  the  total  cost  of  a  reseeding  project,  to  the 
cost  of  the  seed  itself  must  be  added  the  expense  of  transpor- 
tation, sowing,  and  soil  treatment.  The  total  cost  usually 
ranges  from  approximately  $2  to  $5  per  acre.  An  expense  of 
as  much  as  $5  per  acre  is  seldom  justified. 

Moisture  Requirements  of  Cultivated  Forage  Plants.  —  A 
common  mistake  in  range  reseeding,  as  already  pointed  out,  is 
the  failure  to  select  species  that  are  suited  to  the  moisture 
conditions  of  the  soil.  Considering  the  matter  of  moisture  re- 
quirements alone,  the  following  species  may  be  classed  as  having 
high,  intermediate,  and  low  requirements.  The  first  group 
refers  to  plants  which  grow  luxuriantly  in  wet  meadows,  and 
hence  where  the  soil  is  poorly  aerated.  The  second  group  in- 
cludes those  species  which  make  the  best  growth  in  well-drained 
soils,  but  which  also  do  fairly  well  in  both  dry  and  moist  habitats. 
The  third  group  embraces  those  species  which  do  best  on  land 
that  is  well  drained  at  all  times. 


54  RESEEDING  WESTERN   GRAZING  LANDS 

Moisture  Requirements  of  Valuable  Plants  for  Range  Reseeding 


High 

Intermediate 

Low 

Alsike  clover. 

Alfalfa. 

Alfilaria. 

Orchardgrass. 

Alsike  clover. 

Australian  saltbush. 

Red  clover. 

Canada  bluegrass. 

Blue  gramagrass. 

Redtop. 

Italian  ryegrass. 

Bur  clover. 

White  clover. 

Japan  clover. 

Hard  fescue. 

Kentucky  bluegrass. 

Mesquitegrass. 

Orchardgrass. 

Slender  wheatgrass. 

Perennial  ryegrass. 

Hungarian  bromegrass. 

Red  clover. 

Timothy. 

Tall  meadow  oatgrass. 

Timothy. 

White  clover. 

Although  the  above  classification  should  not  be  considered 
infallible,  it  may  prove  helpful  to  stockmen  in  the  selection  of 
the  proper  species.  Because  of  the  adaptability  of  some  spe- 
cies to  a  wide  variety  of  moisture  and  soil  conditions,  a  single 
species,  as  shown  in  the  foregoing  table,  may  fall  under  two 
classifications.  In  addition  to  the  moisture  requirements  of 
plants,  the  physical  structure  and  chemical  nature  of  the  soil 
are  sometimes  limiting  factors  in  plant  growth. 

Seeding  to  a  Mixture.  —  Seeding  different  species  is  often  a 
good  plan,  not  only  because  one  species  may  be  better  suited  to 
the  conditions  than  another,  but  because  more  feed  may  be 
produced  the  season  through;  moreover,  the  cost  may  be  less. 
For  example,  a  mixture  of  lo  pounds  of  Kentucky  bluegrass  and 
4  pounds  of  timothy  per  acre  —  sufficient  to  produce  a  good  stand 
—  costs  only  about  half  as  much  as  does  a  pure  seeding  of  20 
pounds  of  Kentucky  bluegrass.  To  obtain  a  good  cover  of 
Kentucky  bluegrass  requires  several  seasons.  A  combined 
seeding  of  Kentucky  bluegrass  and  timothy,  on  the  other  hand, 
yields  a  crop  of  the  latter  the  first  year.  Moreover,  the  tim- 
othy crop  does  not  seem  to  hold  in  check  the  development  of 
the  bluegrass  cover.  On  western  ranges  generally,  it  is  seldom 
profitable  to  expend  more  than  about  $3  per  acre  for  seed  and 
planting  combined.  Where  conditions  for  growth  are  favor- 
able, a  sparse  cover,  especially  of  sod  plants,  is  sure  to  increase 


WHERE   SEEDING  WILL   PAY  55 

m  density  if  the  lands  are  not  grazed  destructively  each  year, 
and  eventually  a  complete  cover  may  be  obtained. 

How  to  Graze  Newly  Seeded  Lands.  —  The  first  year  after 
seeding,  the  young  plants  seldom  produce  much  forage,  nor  do 
they  withstand  heavy  grazing.  Injury  to  the  young  cover  by 
grazing  and  trampling  is  most  severe  early  in  the  season  of  the 
first  year,  but  even  in  the  autumn  moderate  grazing  should  be 
practiced.  On  mountain  ranges  it  generally  pays  to  keep  stock 
off  the  seeded  portion  during  the  entire  first  season.  In  the 
autumn  or  late  summer  of  the  second  year  moderate  grazing 
seldom  thins  the  stand  seriously. 

Where  Seeding  Will  Pay.  —  Seeding  to  cultivated  forage 
plants  is  warranted  only  where  the  soil  is  fertile,  where  there 
is  ample  moisture,  and  where  the  growing  season  is  long  enough 
to  permit  good  growth.  If  the  mountain  ranges  of  the  West 
are  taken  as  a  whole,  probably  only  a  small  part  of  the  area 
may  be  economically  seeded  to  cultivated  plants.  This  limi- 
tation may  be  restated  as  due  chiefly  to  (i)  excessive  eleva- 
tion, (2)  insufficient  moisture,  (3)  poor  soil,  and  (4)  inability 
of  cultivated  plants  to  compete  successfully  with  the  native 
vegetation.  Plants  that  produce  a  sod  are  much  to  be  preferred 
to  bunchgrasses  which  are  entirely  dependent  upon  seed  for 
their  perpetuation. 

It  is  evident  that  there  is  great  need  for  plants  as  well  adapted 
to  mountain  range  and  arid  plain  as  are  Kentucky  bluegrass  and 
Bermudagrass  to  certain  sections  in  the  humid  and  semi-humid 
regions.  Neither  of  these  introduced  plants  nor  any  other 
cultivated  species  thus  far  tried  thrives  under  the  rigorous 
conditions  that  obtain  over  the  vast  stretches  of  western  grazing 
grounds.  It  is  significant,  however,  that  most  of  the  cultivated 
forage  plants  grown  in  this  country  have  been  introduced  from 
the  Old  World.  In  addition  to  those  mentioned,  are  timothy, 
redtop,  Hungarian  bromegrass,  various  species  and  varieties  of 
clovers,  alfalfa,  sorghums,  and  vetches.  Furthermore,  there 
are  such  semi-domesticated  introduced  plants  as  alfilaria  {Ero- 
dium)  and  wild  oats  (Avena),  whose  forage  value  on  the  native 


56  RESEEDING  WESTERN   GRAZING   LANDS 

ranges  of  the  Southwest  and  the  Pacific  slope  can  be  only  ap- 
proximately estimated. 

Although  nearly  all  of  the  successful  introduced  plants  are 
adapted  to  the  humid  or  semi-humid  regions  of  the  United 
States,  it  is  not  improbable  that  other  foreign  species  might  be 
equally  well  adapted  to  mountain  lands  and  arid  sections. 
Until  suitable  introduced  plants  are  discovered,  however,  range 
managers  must  content  themselves  with  the  improvement  of 
the  range  through  the  revegetation  of  the  native  forage  crop. 
Possibilities  along  this  line  have  been  adequately  demonstrated, 
and  the  results  are  highly  encouraging. 

Reseeding  to  Native  Forage  Plants.  —  Restricted  localities 
are  not  uncommonly  found  which  have  been  so  severely  de- 


FiG.  15.  — COMB   SEED   STRIPPER,    USED   IN  COLLECTING   SEED  OF  THE    NATIVE 

GRASSES. 

pleted  that  practically  no  desirable  native  forage  plants  remain, 
and  on  which  cultivated  plants  will  not  grow.  On  such  areas 
revegetation   may   be   hastened   appreciably   by   scattering  in 


RESEEDING   TO   NATIVE   FORAGE   PLANTS 


57 


strategic  places  seed  of  the  more  desirable  native  plants  which 
once  occupied  the  lands.  Collecting  seed  of  native  pasture 
plants,  however,  is  tedious  and  expensive,  and  the  \dability  of 
the  seed  is  often  low.  For  these  reasons  it  seldom  pays  to  seed 
large  areas.  In  the  Wasatch  Mountains  of  Utah  large  quantities 
of  seed  of  violet  wheatgrass  {Agropyron  violaceiim)  have  been 
gathered  for  19  cents  per  pound,  and  of  mountain  bromegrass 
{Bromus  carinatus)  for  24  cents  per  pound.  A  comb  seed  strip- 
per is  used  in  the  collecting  (Fig.  15). 

A  more  profitable  plan,  and  one  that  the  author  has  tried  out 
in  many  locahties  in  the  Great  Basin  region,  is  that  of  "  strip  " 
seeding.  The  area  sown  is  small,  often  not  over  15  or  20  rods 
long  and  i  or  2  rods  wide.  Before  the  sowing,  the  soil  is  thor- 
oughly loosened  up  by  harrowing  or  plowing.  The  plot  is  then 
seeded  heavily  and  the  seed  carefully  covered  by  harrowing  or 
''  brushing." 


Fig.  16.  —  A  PROTECTION  STRIP  SEEDED  TO  NATR^E  FOIL-VGE  PLANTS. 
The  luxuriant  vegetation  produces  an  abundance  of  seed  which  finds  lodgment  on  the  adjoining  de- 
pleted area,  thereby  aiding  nature  in  replenishing  the  overgrazed  cover. 


If  the  stock  is  not  under  control,  the  seeded  strip  is  fenced, 
preferably  with  woven  wire  or  with  material  which  will  not 
break  the  force  of  the  wind  (Fig.  16).  If  such  plots  are  so 
located  that  the  mnd  has  full  sweep,  the  seed  developed  within 


58  RESEEDING  WESTERN  GRAZING  LANDS 

the  enclosure  is  carried  for  a  considerable  distance  over  the  ad- 
jacent area.  In  two  or  three  seasons  young  plants  are  seen 
radiating  from  the  central  "  oases." 

Every  precaution  possible  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  de- 
struction of  all  the  native  seed  plants.  If  the  lands  are  denuded 
of  vegetation,  nature  is  put  to  such  a  disadvantage  that 
it  may  be  impossible  to  replace  in  years  what  required  only 
two  or  three  seasons  to  destroy. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  results  of  plant  introduction  on  arid  native  western  grazing 
grounds. 

2.  Discuss  the  physical  conditions  peculiar  to  mountain  range  lands  as 
related  to  the  growth  of  cultivated  forage  plants. 

3.  Name  five  plants  that  are  reported  to  have  given  the  best  results  in 
reseeding  mountain  meadows. 

4.  When  is  the  best  season  to  sow  (a)  In  the  Northwest?  WTiy?  (b)  In 
the  Southwest?    Why? 

5.  Name  five  common  causes  of  failure  in  reseeding  mountain  land. 

6.  What  cultural  implements  would  you  recommend  for  use  in  preparing 
the  seedbed  and  covering  the  seed? 

7.  How  should  the  seed  be  scattered? 

8.  (a)  Why  is  it  important  that  the  seed  be  covered?  (b)  How  may  this 
best  be  done  on  the  range? 

9.  (a)  Discuss  elevation  as  a  limiting  factor  in  range  reseeding.  (b)  At 
how  great  an  elevation  is  it  practicable  to  seed  (i)  in  the  Northwest,  (2)  in 
the  Southwest? 

10.  Name  three  important  characteristics  which  a  forage  plant  that  is 
to  be  seeded  on  the  range  should  possess. 

11.  How  many  pounds  should  be  sown  to  the  acre  of  (a)  Kentucky  blue- 
grass,  (h)  timothy,  (c)  white  clover,  (d)  redtop,  (e)  Canada  bluegrass? 

12.  Discuss  the  advantages  of  seeding  to  a  mixture. 

13.  How  would  you  graze  newly  seeded  land? 

14.  Discuss  the  limitations  of  seeding  to  cultivated  grasses  on  western 
range  lands  generally,  and  show  where  such  seeding  may  be  expected  to  pay. 

15.  Discuss  the  conditions  under  which  artificial  or  hand  seeding  to  native 
forage  plants  may  be  justified. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Cotton,  J.  S.     The  Improvement  of  Mountain  Meadows.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  127,  1908. 
Range  Management  in  the  State  of  Washington.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 
Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  75,  1905. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  59 

Griffiths,  D.     A  Protected  Stock  Range  in  Arizona.      U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  177,  igio. 
Hastings,  S.   H.     Forage  Crop  Experiments  at  the  San  Antonio  Field 

Station.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Cir.  106,  1913. 
Hitchcock,  A.  S.     Cultivated  Forage  Crops  of  the  Northwestern  States. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  31,  1902. 
Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark.     Range  Management  on  the 

National  Forests.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  1919. 
Jones,  L.  R.     Vermont  Grasses  and  Clovers.     Vt.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  94, 

1902. 
Kennedy,  P.  B.     Cooperative  Experiments  with  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Agrost.,  Bui.  22,  1900. 
Smooth  Bromegrass.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Agrost.,  Cir.  18, 

1899. 
McNear,  a.  D.     Lespedeza,  or  Japan  Clover.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers 

Bui.  441,  1911. 
Montgomery,   E.   G.     Productive  Farm  Crops.     J.   B.  Lippincott  Co., 

Phila.,  1915. 
Nelson,  Elias  E.     Native  and  Introduced  Saltbushes.     Wyo.  Agr.  Exp. 

Sta.  Bui.  63,  1904. 
Oakley,  R.  A.     The  Culture  and  Uses  of  Brome-grass.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  in,  Pt.  5,  1907. 
Pearson,  G.  A.     Studies  in  Artificial  Reseeding.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 

Forest  Service,  Review  of  Forest  Service  Investigations,  Vol.  2, 

1913- 
Sampson,  Arthur  W.     Climate  and  Plant  Growth  in  Certain  Vegetative 

Associations.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  700,  1918. 
Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Management.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agr.  Bui.  791,  1919. 
The   Reseeding   of   Depleted    Grazing   Lands   to   Cultivated   Forage 

Plants.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  4,  1913. 
ScRiBNER,  F.  Lamson-.     Economic  Grasses.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of 

Agrost.,  Bui.  14,  1900. 
Thornber,  J.  J.     The  Grazing  Ranges  of  Arizona.     Ariz.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 

Bui.  65,  1910. 
Tracy,  S.  M.     Forage  for  the  Cotton  Belt.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers 

Bui.  1125,  1920. 
ViNALL,  H.  N.     Meadow  Fescue:   Its  Culture  and  Uses.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  361,  1909. 
WooTON,  E.  O.     Carrying  Capacity  of  Grazing  Ranges  in  Southern  Ari- 
zona.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  367,  1916. 
Factors  Affecting  Range  Management  in  New  Mexico.     U.  S.  Dept. 

of  Agr.  Bui.  211,  1915. 


CHAPTER   IV 

NATURAL  RESEEDING  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  NATIVE 
WESTERN   PASTURE   LANDS 

Inasmuch  as  only  a  slight  improvement  in  grazing  capacity 
may  be  expected,  in  the  light  of  present  researches,  from  seeding 
native  western  ranges  to  cultivated  forage  plants,  it  is  very  clear 
that  a  broad  and  fundamentally  sound  plan  of  revegetation  is 
necessary.  Hitherto  the  grazier  has  simply  taken  what  nature 
offered  him.  This  generous  offering,  however,  has  been  over- 
used to  such  an  extent  that  nature  has  been  put  to  a  disad- 
vantage. The  yield  of  plants  that  propagate  by  seed,  as  do 
most  of  the  native  herbaceous  plants  in  the  West,  is  not  main- 
tained when  the  leaf  blades  or  seed  stalks  are  eaten  down  about 
as  soon  as  they  afford  a  good  bite. 

The  control  of  the  number  of  stock  in  accordance  with  the 
carrying  capacity  of  the  lands  will  do  much  to  check  the  evils 
of  overgrazing,  but  this  in  itself  does  not  bring  about  marked 
forage  increment.  If,  however,  the  determination  of  the  proper 
grazing  capacity  is  accompanied  by  a  foraging  plan  based  upon 
the  growth  and  reproduction  requirements  of  the  important 
forage  vegetation,  lands  with  ample  seed  plants  are  soon  re  vege- 
tated and  restored  to  their  pristine  condition.  With  such  a 
basic,  common-sense  grazing  plan  the  results  appear  to  be  uni- 
formly good  on  native  pasture  lands  throughout  the  West. 
Moreover,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  good  results,  for  the  very 
presence  of  native  vegetation  indicates  that  it  is  adapted  to  the 
soil  and  is  capable  of  being  sustained  by  a  minimum  amount  of 
moisture.  Even  after  the  perennial  grasses  have  dried  up,  as 
they  do  in  protracted  periods  of  drought,  many  are  capable 
of  quickly  resuming  growth  and  succulence. 

The  maintenance  of  a  maximum  forage  yield  would  not  be 
difficult  if  grazing  could  be  delayed  each  year  until  the  seed  crop 
had  ripened.     Since,  however,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 

60 


COST  OF  OVERGRAZING  6l 

feed  must  be  cropped  while  the  vegetation  is  growing,  such  a 
plan  is  impracticable.  Any  feasible  plan  of  improving  the  lands, 
therefore,  demands  a  grazing  system  which  permits  full  use  of 
the  pasture  during  the  growing  season.  This  is  accompHshed 
by  alternating  the  grazing  and  the  resting  of  the  lands  in  accord- 
ance with  nature's  rules  —  rules  prescribed  by  the  growth  re- 
quirements of  the  important  vegetation  itself. 

Migrations  of  Buffaloes  Suggest  Revegetation  Plan.  —  The 
roving  habits  of  buffaloes  led  them  north  in  the  spring  and  south 
at  the  approach  of  winter.  Notwithstanding  the  enormous 
numbers  of  the  animals,  these  migrations  caused  practically  no 
range  deterioration.  A  proper  rotation  of  grazing  and  resting 
pasture  lands  accomphshes  notable  results.  Although  the  bene- 
fits from  intermittent  grazing  are  conspicuous  and  indisputable, 
the  stockman  has  been  slow  to  adopt  such  a  plan,  either  on  the 
public  domain  or  on  his  own  range.  Admittedly,  resting  the 
pasture  throughout  one  or  more  seasons  is  inconvenient  and  ex- 
pensive, as  it  does  not  fit  in  with  an  estabHshed  meat-producing 
business.  Where  the  pasture  forage  is  declining  rapidly,  how- 
ever, it  is  necessary  to  face  the  facts,  and  either  allow  some  period 
of  rest  or  reduce  the  stock  accordingly. 

The  object  of  the  following  discussion  is  to  show  how  native 
western  pasture  lands  may  be  fully  revegetated  without  the  loss 
of  a  single  season's  forage  crop,  and  yet  how  this  may  be  accom- 
plished quite  as  rapidly  as  when  the  areas  are  closed  to  grazing. 
Although  this  statement  may  be  surprising,  the  system  is  built 
on  a  thoroughly  tested  scientific  foundation  and  has  been  devel- 
oped in  accordance  with  common  sense. 

Cost  of  Overgrazing.  —  Grazing  the  pasture  to  its  very  maxi- 
mum year  after  year  can  produce  only  one  result  —  a  sharp 
decline  in  its  carrying  capacity.  In  regions  where  the  climatic 
conditions  are  subject  to  considerable  fluctuation,  as  they  are 
over  most  of  the  West,  stocking  the  lands  to  their  maximum  as 
compared  with  their  optimum  capacity,  is  like  buying  fluctu- 
ating stocks  on  the  minimum  marginal  requirements  of  the 
broker,  as  compared  with  an  outright  purchase.  When  the 
pressure  comes,  the  investment  in  cattle  (or  in  stocks)  is  quickly 


62  NATURAL  RESEEDING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

wiped  out.  Although  it  is  impossible,  in  the  light  of  our  present 
imperfect  knowledge,  to  declare  definitely  what  the  optimum 
grazing  capacity  of  a  given  range  unit  is,  the  pasture  should  be 
so  stocked  that  at  the  end  of  an  average  year  a  small  amount 
of  forage  remains.  The  most  successful  cattle  and  sheep  growers 
of  today  are  grazing  their  lands  on  an  optimum  basis.  A  large 
proportion  of  their  unsuccessful  neighbors,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  cropping  the  pasture  each  year  to  the  maximum.  The 
ranches  owned  by  the  latter  men  either  are  mortgaged  or  are 
passing  into  new  hands  through  foreclosure.  The  financial  loss 
that  the  stockman  suffers  because  of  failure  to  recognize  and 
meet  the  requirements  of  plant  growth  is  so  great  that  it  can  not 
be  even  approximately  estimated.  Fitting  the  grazing  plan  into 
the  growth  requirements  of  the  vegetation  greatly  benefits  the 
stockman  and  stabilizes  the  livestock  industry;  it  is  favorable 
to  the  irrigation  farmer  because  it  regulates  the  streamflow; 
and  it  is  an  essential  element  in  the  preservation  of  soil  fertiUty. 

REQUIREMENTS  OF  PLANT  GROWTH 

The  most  important  objects  sought  in  the  revegetation  of 
native  pastures  are  a  continuous,  vigorous  growth  and  ample 
seed  production.  The  most  important  points  in  this  connection 
are:  (i)  Extent  of  forage  development  when  the  stock  is  ad- 
mitted in  the  spring;  (2)  seed  production  and  the  time  when 
the  seed  is  scattered  and  planted;  and  (3)  establishment  of  the 
seedhng  plants. 

Forage  Production  in  Early  Spring.  —  The  \'igor  of  pasture 
vegetation  may  be  readily  determined  by  the  time  growth 
starts  and  the  amount  of  forage  produced  in  early  spring.  Any 
plant  that  develops  an  abundance  of  leafage  early  in  the  season 
had  a  large  amount  of  food  stored  in  the  roots  the  previous  year 
and,  hence,  is  in  a  healthy,  vigorous  condition.  When,  however, 
the  plant  is  repeatedly  robbed  of  its  green  leafage  during  the 
summer,  not  only  is  growth  in  the  following  spring  much  de- 
layed but  the  amount  of  herbage  produced  is  small. ^     Vegetation 

'  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Natural  Revegetation  of  Range  Lands  Based  upon 
Growth  Requirements  and  Life  History  of  the  Vegetation."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 
Jour,  of  Agr.  Research,  Vol.  3,  No.  2,  pp.  101-115, 1914. 


FORAGE   PRODUCTION  IN  EARLY  SPRING  63 

in  this  weakened  condition  is  readily  killed  by  further  close  or 
premature  grazing. 

Sampson  ^  has  shown  that  the  removal  of  herbage  several  times 
in  a  season,  especially  if  the  first  harvest  is  made  a  few  days 
after  growth  has  started,  seriously  weakens  the  plant  and  im- 
mediately decreases  its  forage  production.  In  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains of  northeastern  Oregon,  and  again  in  the  Wasatch  Moun- 
tains of  Utah,  the  writer  harvested  monthly,  for  three  years  in 
succession,  various  species  of  bunchgrasses  and  other  plants, 
three  cuttings  being  made  each  year  on  one  plot  and  once  a 
season  on  another  plot.  Most  of  the  plants  so  treated  lived 
through  the  period  of  the  experiment,  but  at  the  end  of  the  third 
year  only  a  few  weak  spears  of  leafage  per  plant  were  produced. 
Moreover,  each  season,  as  the  experiment  of  frequent  harvesting 
progressed,  the  time  at  which  growth  began  was  correspondingly 
delayed,  until  finally  no  flower  stalks  were  sent  up.  On  the 
other  hand,  plants  of  equal  vigor  when  the  test  was  started,  but 
whose  herbage  was  not  clipped  until  the  seed  crop  had  ripened, 
were  approximately  150  per  cent  greater  in  volume  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  third  year  of  treatment  than  those  harvested  three 
times  each  season,  and  the  forage  yield  from  them  was  about 
300  per  cent  greater.  Furthermore,  the  growth  of  the  vigorous 
plants  began  in  the  spring  ten  to  fifteen  days  earlier  than  on  the 
frequently  clipped  plots.  Then,  too,  the  leafage  was  quite  as 
abundant  as  where  the  plants  were  protected  yearlong.  Nor 
was  the  difference  in  the  development  of  the  plants  variously 
treated  confined  to  the  aerial  growth.  Repeated  examinations 
of  the  roots  in  the  autumn  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  of  treat- 
ment showed  that  the  plants  clipped  monthly  were  practically 
devoid  of  plant  foods,  whereas  those  not  harvested  until  the  seed 
had  matured  contained  a  superabundance  of  food  materials 
(Fig.  17). 

An  elaborate  series  of  cropping  tests  with  various  forms  of 
bunchgrasses  was  carried  out  by  the  writer  at  the  Great  Basin 

1  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Range  Improvement  by  Deferred  and  Rotation  Graz- 
ing."   U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  34,  p.  3,  1913. 


64 


NATUR.\L  RESEEDING  AND  MAINTExNANCE 


Experiment  Station  in  the  Wasatch  Mountains  in  central  Utah.^ 
Plots  harvested  once  each  season,  just  before  seed  maturity, 
yielded  more  than  five  times  as  much  air-dry  forage  as  those 
from  which  the  leafage  was  removed  four  times  each  season. 


Fig.  17.  —  THE  STORY  OF  REPEATED  GRAZING  YEAR  AFTER  YEAR. 
Left.  —  Thin  slice  cut  across  an  active  root  of  larkspur.  The  numerous  spherical  bodies  scattered 
throughout  the  tissues  are  starch  grains,  an  important  plant  food.  The  plant  had  not  been 
molested  in  any  way.  It  was  growing  vigorously  and  was  in  a  normal,  healthy  condition 
when  the  examination  was  made.  Right.  —  Cross  section  of  a  larkspur  root  similar  to  that  shown 
on  the  left.  Because  the  leafage  was  cut  oflF  three  times  the  first  year  and  two  times  the  second 
year  the  root  section  contains  only  a  few  small  grains  of  starch,  .^t  the  end  of  the  second  year 
of  cutting  the  plant  died  from  starvation.  Repeated  grazing  year  after  year  accomplishes  ex- 
actly this  result. 


Likewise  where  two  cuttings  were  made  late  in  the  season,  the 
yield  was  practically  the  same  as  where  the  herbage  was  removed 
once,  but  many  times  greater  than  where  the  plots  were  harvested 
four  times.  It  was  significant,  too,  that  at  the  end  of  the  third 
year  approximately  85  per  cent  of  the  plants  harvested  four 
times  had  died.  They  literally  starved  to  death  (Figs.  18  and 
19). 

'  For  a  more  detailed  consideration  of  this  subject,  see  Sampson,  Arthur  W., 
"Livestock  Husbandry  on  Range  and  Pasture." 


FORAGE  PRODUCTION  IN  EARLY  SPRING 


6S 


hu-iUnn  of  the  Author. ) 
liN   A   SEASON, 
for  two  years  in  succes- 


{Forest  Service,  uiu 

Fig.  i8.  — effect  ON  VEGETATION  OF  CROPPING  TWI 

Plot  of  violet  wheatgrass   {Agropyron  violaceum)  harvested  twice  each  sej 

sion,  the  first  cutting  being  made  at  the  time  of  seed  maturity  and  the  second  near  the  end  of 
the  growing  season.  All  the  plants  were  vigorous  and  healthy;  they  produced  a  large  yield  and 
an  abundance  of  seed  of  good  germination  strength.  (Photographed  in  the  spring  of  the  third 
season  of  the  test,  prior  to  harvesting.) 


{Forest  Service,  under  direction  of  the  Author.) 
Fig.  19.  —  EFFECT  ON  VEGETATION  OF  CROPPING  SE\TRAL  TIMES  IN  A  SEASON. 
Plot  of  violet  wheatgrass  located  adjacent  to  that  shown  in  Figure  18.  The  plot  was  harvested  four 
times  each  season  at  monthly  intervals  for  two  years  in  succession,  the  first  cutting  being  made 
two  weeks  after  growth  had  begun.  The  yield  was  approximately  five  times  less  than  that  from 
the  plot  shown  in  Figure  18.  At  the  end  of  the  third  year  85  per  cent  of  the  plants  had  died. 
(Photographed  in  the  spring  of  the  third  season  of  the  test,  prior  to  harvesting.) 


66  NATURAL   RESEEDING   AND   MAINTENANCE 

The  experiments  here  cited  show  clearly  how  utterly  dependent 
is  the  plant  on  a  reasonable  leaf  surface  for  the  manufacture  of 
food.  Not  only  is  the  development  of  foUage  determined  largely 
by  the  amount  of  food  stored  in  the  plant  for  future  use,  but  the 
development  of  the  root  system,  upon  which  the  plant  is  de- 
pendent for  an  ample  supply  of  water  and  soil  salts,  is  also  de- 
termined by  the  elaborated  food  supply. 

Seed  Production.  —  The  revegetation  of  native  pastures  in 
general  and  of  bunchgrass  lands  in  particular  is  dependent  upon 
the  production  of  a  fertile  seed  crop.  Natural  reseeding,  there- 
fore, presupposes  the  maintenance  of  the  seed  plants  at  all  times 
in  a  high  state  of  vigor.  Without  vigorous  growth  few  flower 
stalks  are  sent  up,  and  these  appear  so  late  in  the  season  that  Httle 
fertile  seed  is  developed. 

In  the  Blue  Mountains  of  northeastern  Oregon  an  area  which 
for  several  years  had  been  severely  overgrazed  was  fenced 
against  stock,  and  for  five  years  note  was  made  of  the  recovery 
in  vigor  of  the  vegetation.  During  the  first  year  of  protection 
no  flower  stalks  appeared  until  July  25,  although  flower  stalks 
of  vigorous  vegetation  of  the  same  species  growing  under  similar 
conditions  started  about  June  20.  The  second  season,  however, 
flower  stalks  on  the  fenced  plot  began  to  appear  as  early  as  July 
10,  although  the  growing  season  was  no  earlier  than  in  the 
previous  year.  As  the  seasons  of  protection  proceeded,  the 
flower  stalks  appeared  earlier  in  the  spring,  the  seed  crop  was 
larger,  and  the  viability  of  the  seed  was  very  much  higher.  In 
mountain  ranges  where  the  growing  season  is  short,  the  great 
struggle  of  the  vegetation  is  to  mature  its  seed  crop.  If  this  is 
to  be  accomplished,  the  vegetation,  as  shown,  must  be  in  a  high 
state  of  vigor. 

Generalizing,  it  may  be  stated  that  vigorous  plants,  which 
have  not  been  weakened  by  overgrazing,  produce  a  large  forage 
yield  and  a  viable  seed  crop  which  matures  fairly  early;  that 
those  of  average  vigor  develop  a  moderate  amount  of  herbage 
and  a  small  seed  crop  which  matures  late;  and  that  seriously 
weakened  plants  produce  but  little  forage  and  usually  fail  to 
develop  any  seed. 


DESTRUCTION  OF   SEEDLINGS   BY   GRAZING  67 

Scattering  and  Planting  the  Seed.  —  Most  plants  drop  their 
seed  as  soon  as  it  reaches  maturity.  This  is  advantageous  in 
revegetation  because  it  eliminates  to  a  great  extent  the  possi- 
bihty  that  the  stock  will  consume  much  of  the  seed  crop;  at 
the  same  time  it  permits  the  seed  to  be  trampled  into  the  ground 
when  the  forage  is  grazed. 

If  the  lands  are  not  grazed  after  the  seed  crop  is  disseminated, 
large  chaffy  seeds,  like  those  of  the  bromegrasses,  fescuegrasses, 
the  wheatgrasses,  and  numerous  others  of  primary  forage  value, 
even  though  promptly  dropped  upon  reaching  maturity,  are 
usually  found  uncovered  in  the  spring.  On  the  other  hand, 
plants  with  more  or  less  rounded,  heavy  seeds,  like  those  of 
sedges  (the  leafage  of  many  of  which  is  not  highly  palatable) 
are  soon  worked  beneath  the  surface  soil  into  a  favorable  seedbed. 
Needless  to  say,  therefore,  plants  of  the  large-seeded  species  that 
fail  of  being  planted,  often  on  account  of  nongrazing,  fail  like- 
wise to  reproduce;  whereas,  the  undesirable  forms  may  increase 
each  year.  To  insure  good  results,  therefore,  the  lands  should 
be  grazed  closely,  but  not  destructively,  after  the  seed  crop 
ripens. 

Loss  of  Seedling  Plants  from  Natural  Agencies.  —  The 
thoroughness  with  which  the  seed  is  planted  in  the  autumn,  the 
character  of  the  soil,  and  the  favorableness  of  the  climatic  condi- 
tions are  the  primary  factors  in  the  establishment  of  the  seedling 
stand.  On  hard-packed  soils,  as  on  bed  grounds  and  stock 
driveways,  a  large  proportion  of  the  seedlings  die  because  they 
are  unable  to  extend  their  roots  to  sufficient  depth  to  absorb 
the  water  necessary  for  their  continued  growth.  Frequently, 
also,  heavy  seedling  mortality  occurs  on  exposed,  dry  situations. 
If  the  seedling  stand  has  passed  through  the  forepart  of  the  first 
season  in  good  condition,  it  is  reasonably  sure  to  develop  into 
a  permanent  cover.  By  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  young 
plants  have  formed  fairly  deep  and  elaborate  root  systems,  and 
their  continued  growth  is  practically  assured  (Figs.  20,  21,  22, 
and  23). 

Destruction  of  Seedlings  by  Grazing.  —  Besides  the  damage 
seedlings   suffer   from   natural    agencies,    their   destruction   by 


68 


NATURAL  RESEEDING  AND  MAINTENANCE 


(Forest  Service,  by  Ihe  Author.) 
Fig.  20.  — mountain  BUNCHGRASS  SEEDLINGS  AT  THE  END  OF  THE  FIRST 
SEASON  OF   GROWTH. 
The  average  height  of  the  leaf  blades  is  about  3  inches.     Because  of  the  meager  root  system  the  seed- 
lings are  easily  destroyed  by  grazing  and  trampling,  especially  early  in  the  season. 


(Forest  Sen-ice,  by  llie  Author.) 

Fig.  21.  —  MOUNTAIN  BUNCHGRASS  AT  THE  END  OF  THE  SECOND  SEASON  OF 

GROWTH. 

The  plant  is  stocky  and  has  an  abundance  of  basal  leafage.     A  well-formed  root  was  found  as  deep 

as  lo  inches  in  the  soil.    Moderate  grazing  does  not  appreciably  injure  the  plants  at  this  stage 

of  growth.  69 


{Forest  Service,  hy  Ike  Author.) 
Fig.  2a.  —  MOUNTAIN  BUNCHGRASS  EARLY  IN  THE  SUMMER  OF  THE  THIRD  YEAR. 
It  grows  vigorously,  producing  an  abundance  of  forage.  70 


(Forest  Service,  by  the  Author.) 
Fig.  23.  -MOUNTAIN  BUNCHGRASS  AT  THE  END  OF  THE  THIRD  YEAR. 
A  few  flower  stalks  and  viable  seeds  are  produced.     After  that  the  tuft  enlarges  rapidly.         71 


72  NATURAL   RESEEDING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

grazing  may  be  extensive.  Especially  is  this  true  where  the 
stand  has  previously  been  weakened  as  a  result  of  drought,  where 
cattle  are  not  properly  distributed,  or  where  a  band  of  sheep  is 
too  closely  herded  or  handled  excessively  by  dogs.  The  time 
at  which  the  reseeding  area  is  grazed,  however,  is  probably  the 
primary  factor  in  the  destiny  of  the  seedling  stand.  A  discussion 
of  this  point  naturally  comes  in  a  consideration  of  the  different 
methods  of  grazing  as  related  to  reseeding. 

GRAZING   SYSTEMS  AND   FORAGE  PRODUCTION 

If  the  growth  requirements  of  the  principal  forage  plants,  as 
well  as  the  time  when  the  forage  is  needed  for  grazing,  are  taken 
into  account,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  entire  pasture  can  not 
be  set  aside  for  reseeding  in  a  single  year.  Grazing  as  generally 
practiced  in  the  West  may  be  divided  into  three  more  or  less 
distinct  systems:  (i)  Yearlong  or  season-long  grazing  year  after 
year;  (2)  yearlong  grazing,  with  an  occasional  total  exclusion  of 
stock  during  the  entire  year  with  a  view  to  securing  forage  repro- 
duction; and  (3)  deferred  grazing,  or  a  rotation  in  the  time  of 
using  each  portion  of  the  range,  the  plants  on  one  portion  being 
allowed  to  mature  their  seed  each  year  before  the  stock  is  admit- 
ted, and  the  stock  being  made  to  assist  forage  reproduction  by 
trampling  in  the  seed.  These  systems  will  be  briefly  discussed 
with  a  view  to  outlining  a  grazing  plan  which,  as  a  result  of  many 
years  of  practical  application,  can  be  recommended  as  economical 
and  effective  in  rejuvenating  the  average  depleted  native  pasture. 

Yearlong  Grazing.  —  On  much  of  the  public  domain,  and  not 
infrequently  on  privately  owned  pastures,  the  stock  is  admitted 
as  soon  as  the  first  vestige  of  green  appears  in  the  spring. 
Often  the  lands  are  so  "heavily  stocked  that  the  forage  is 
kept  gnawed  down  throughout  the  season.  The  results  to  the 
existing  vegetation  are  comparable  to  the  results  of  the  monthly 
clipping  experiments  cited.  In  addition,  however,  the  plant 
roots  are  badly  damaged  by  trampling,  and  the  soil  is  put  in 
poor  physical  tilth  because  of  heavy  packing.  Again,  as  in  the 
clipping  experiments,  the  desirable  vegetation  is  greatly  weakened 
or  thinned  out;  and,  because  of  the  entire  lack  of  seed  production 


REVEGETATION   BY  YEARLONG   PROTECTION  OF   PASTURES     73 

of  the  palatable  vegetation,  the  grazing  capacity  drops  sharply. 

Yearlong  or  season-long  grazing  is  the  most  common  pasture 
practice.  Not  only  is  the  forage  as  a  whole  cropped  too  early 
in  the  season,  but  it  is  usually  grazed  again  when  the  second 
growth  is  only  partly  developed.  Continued  grazing  in  this 
way  results,  as  shown,  in  the  failure  of  the  palatable  plants  to 
reproduce.  In  their  place  there  is  usually  a  conspicuous  in- 
vasion of  numerous  unpalatable  annual  and  short-lived  perennial 
species. 

To  sum  up  the  results  of  continued  season-long  grazing:^ 
"  Where  there  is  enough  stock  to  use  all  the  forage  each  year  the 
requirements  of  plant  growth  are  seriously  interfered  with,  the 
forage  crop  becomes  weakened  and  is  materially  decreased, 
little  or  no  seed  is  produced,  reproduction  is  therefore  prevented, 
and  there  is  a  gradual  decline  in  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
range." 

Revegetation  by  Yearlong  Protection  of  Pastures. — The  funda- 
mentally wrong  practice  of  yearlong  or  season-long  grazing,  so 
far  as  it  concerns  the  physiological  requirements  of  vegetation, 
would  appear  to  be  overcome  by  excluding  grazing  entirely  until 
a  depleted  pasture  is  thoroughly  revegetated.  At  first  thought 
it  would  seem  that  such  a  plan  of  revegetation  might  be  the  best 
and  most  expedient  way  to  restore  a  wornout  area.  As  long  ago 
as  1908  a  stockman  proposed  to  the  writer  the  total  exclusion 
of  foraging  animals  from  an  area  during  the  period  required  for 
thorough  revegetation.  The  plan  was  to  shift  the  yearlong  pro- 
tection scheme  from  one  portion  of  the  range  to  another  until 
the  whole  area  was  reseeded.  Although  this  plan  required,  first 
of  all,  a  considerable  reduction  in  the  number  of  stock  previously 
grazed,  the  experiment  was  initiated. 

The  study  showed  conclusively  that  yearlong  protection  from 
grazing  restores  in  a  few  seasons  the  vigor  of  the  weakened 
vegetation  and  increases  appreciably  the  forage  production  of 
the  plants  already  in  existence.  The  system  proved  a  dismal 
failure,  however,  in  the  establishment  of  seedUng  plants  of  the 

^  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Range  Improvement  by  Deferred  and  Rotation  Graz- 
ing."    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  34,  p.  9,  1913. 


74  NATURAL   RESEEDING   AND   MAINTENANCE 

numerous  nutritious  grasses,  especially  species  that  produce 
large  seeds.  On  the  other  hand,  annual  plants,  with  their  strong 
seed  habits,  and  especially  those  with  small,  round,  heavy  seeds 
reproduce  exceedingly  well.  Thus  yearlong  protection  favors 
the  recuperation  of  only  the  vegetation  already  in  existence. 
As  this  plan  fails  to  accomplish  the  planting  of  the  seed,  it  likewise 
fails  to  accomplish  the  reproduction  of  a  large  proportion  of  the 
most  important  pasture  plants. 

In  summing  up  the  results  of  the  practice  in  question,  the 
writer  states:^  "  Yearlong  protection  is  not  an  efficient  one,  be- 
cause the  most  valuable  perennial  species  fail  to  reproduce  by 
seed.  While  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  land  is  increased, 
this  increase  is  slow  and  does  not  compensate  for  the  waste  of  the 
forage  crop  during  the  long  period  necessary  for  revegetation.'' 

Deferred  Grazing.  —  The  two  grazing  systems  discussed  fail 
to  accomplish  revegetation  because  they  are  not  based  upon  the 
growth  requirements  of  the  vegetation.  What  is  known  as  the 
deferred-grazing  system  takes  into  account  the  requirements  of 
plant  growth  from  the  time  of  the  germination  of  the  seed  until 
the  seedHng  plants  are  thoroughly  established.  After  that  it  aims 
to  maintain  the  forage  cover  at  all  times  in  a  high  state  of  vigor. 

The  essential  principles  of  the  deferred-grazing  system  are: 
(i)  An  overgrazed  area,  sufficiently  large  to  supply  the  forage 
from  the  time  of  seed  maturity  until  the  end  of  the  grazing 
season,  is  protected  from  stock  until  the  seed  crop  has  matured. ^ 
(2)  Upon  maturity  of  the  seed  crop  the  forage  is  grazed  closely 
during  the  first  season,  but  not  to  the  extent  of  injuring  the  seed 
plants.  (3)  The  same  area  is  protected  to  about  the  same  date 
in  the  second  season  and  longer  if  necessary,  or  until  the  new 
plants  have  been  thoroughly  established.  (4)  When  the  area 
has  been  satisfactorily  reseeded,  it  is  grazed  early  in  the  season, 

'  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Natural  Revegetation  of  Range  Lands  Based  upon 
Growth  Requirements  and  Life  History  of  the  Vegetation."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 
Jour,  of  Agr.  Research,  Vol.  3,  No.  2,  p.  125,  1914. 

^  Sod-forming  grasses  withstand  cropping  better  than  do  bunchgrasses,  yet  when 
sod-forming  plants  are  overgrazed  their  decline  in  yield  is  marked  and  conspicuous. 
It  is  a  good  practice,  therefore,  to  defer  the  grazing  occasionally  on  weakened  sod- 
forming  lands,  as  elsewhere,  until  the  spring  growth  is  reasonably  well  advanced. 


PALATABILITY  OF   MATURE   FORAGE  75 

and  a  second  area,  of  sufficient  size  to  accomodate  the  stock  from 
the  time  of  the  ripening  of  the  seed  to  the  end  of  the  grazing 
season,  is  protected  until  the  forage  has  matured.  (5)  Alter- 
nating the  grazing  after  seed  maturity  from  one  area  to  another 
is  continued,  not  only  during  the  period  required  for  the  re- 
stocking of  each  selected  area,  but  even  after  the  deferred  por- 
tions have  been  fully  revegetated.  This  plan  not  only  keeps  the 
vegetation  vigorous  at  all  times,  but  results  in  the  formation 
of  an  occasional  seed  crop. 

Palatability  of  Mature  Forage.  —  It  is  claimed  by  some  that 
forage  on  areas  where  grazing  is  deferred  until  after  seed  matu- 
rity is  "  dry  and  tough  "  and  can  not  be  utilized  to  advantage. 
That  this  contention  is  unfounded  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  stock 
of  all  classes  do  well  on  suitable,  well-watered  winter  range, 
where,  after  several  months  of  existence  on  matured  forage,  the 
animals  are  content  and  in  good  condition  of  flesh.  Moreover, 
on  the  average  mountain  summer  range,  very  little  succulent 
forage  is  available  in  the  autumn  after  the  advent  of  killing 
frosts.  Furthermore,  as  indicated,  there  is  a  distinct  advantage 
in  having  a  reserved  area  of  virgin  forage  upon  which  the  animals 
may  feed  during  the  latter  part  of  the  grazing  season.  The  per- 
enm'al  grasses  and  the  various  other  plants  that  are  highly  pala- 
table when  green  are  generally  grazed  with  considerable  avidity 
after  the  herbage  is  air-cured.  The  leafage  of  herbaceous  plants 
that  is  "  cured  on  the  ground,"  however,  varies  considerably 
both  in  palatabihty  and  in  availability.  The  leaves  of  some  of 
the  more  succulent  broad-leaved  herbs  have  a  tendency  to  sepa- 
rate from  the  stem  as  soon  as  they  dry  up.  In  grasses,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  leaf  blades  are  persistent  and  generally  remain 
intact,  and  hence  are  available  for  grazing  until  the  plant  as  a 
whole  undergoes  decomposition. 

As  a  rule,  lambs  do  not  maintain  their  plump  "  baby  "  con- 
dition so  well  on  mature  forage  as  on  an  abundance  of  succulent 
feed;  but  they  harden  on  dry  forage,  and  therefore  hold  up  well 
on  a  drive  and  in  transportation  to  market.^     Western  lambs, 

'  Douglas,  L.  H.,  "Deferred  and  Rotation  Grazing,  Hayden  National  Forest, 
Wyoming."     Nat'l  Wool  Grower,  Vol.  5,  No.  10,  1915. 


76  NATURAL  RESEEDING   AND   MAINTENANCE 

however,  are  usually  sold  before  the  forage  matures.  Further- 
more, if  range  is  grazed  early  in  the  season  and  recropped  in  the 
fall,  uneasiness  is  usually  caused  in  stock,  in  so  far  as  there  is  an 
insufficiency  of  the  succulent  feed  which  they  seek  to  satisfy  the 
appetite. 

In  the  light  of  the  intensive  studies  in  the  Blue  Mountains  of 
Oregon,  the  author  summarizes  the  question  of  palatability  as 
follows:^ 

"  Nearly  all  the  leading  range  plants,  particularly  the  grasses, 
are  grazed  during  the  autumn  with  rehsh.  It  can  not  be  said, 
however,  that  they  are  eaten  with  the  same  gusto  after  seed 
maturity  as  when  they  are  growing  vigorously.  It  was  found 
that  the  first  time  a  band  of  sheep  passed  over  a  matured  range 
of  medium  density  only  about  half  of  the  forage  crop  was  grazed 
off.  Not  until  the  range  was  grazed  a  second  or  third  time  was 
the  crop  entirely  consumed.  The  vegetation  on  similar  ranges 
grazed  a  month  earlier  was  in  most  cases  entirely  consumed  the 
first  time  the  stock  passed  over  it.  On  ranges  grazed  after  seed 
maturity  the  naked  flower  stalks,  rising  from  leafless  tufts  of 
bunchgrass,  remained  after  the  stock  had  passed  over  them,  but 
on  ranges  grazed  when  the  forage  was  succulent  and  tender  no 
flower  stalks  were  visible  after  the  passage  of  the  stock.  No 
appreciable  amount  of  herbage  remained  on  either  area." 

Weakened  vegetation,  when  protected  by  deferred  grazing, 
recovers  its  vitaHty  quite  as  rapidly  as  when  the  lands  are  closed 
to  grazing  the  year  through.  This  protection  results  in  a  forage 
yield  practically  as  large  from  the  existing  vegetation  as  on  year- 
long protected  lands,  and  in  the  production  of  a  seed  crop  quite 
as  satisfactory. 

Advantages  of  Deferred  Grazing.  —  One  of  the  chief  advan- 
tages of  the  deferred  system  of  grazing  is  that  no  forage  is  lost 
while  the  lands  are  being  reseeded.  Stock  are  not  permitted  to 
crop  the  reseeding  area  until  after  seed  maturity;  but,  if  the 
pasture  has  not  been  overgrazed,  enough  feed  is  available  on  the 

'  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Natural  Revegetation  of  Range  Lands  Based  upon 
Growth  Requirements  and  Life  History  of  the  Vegetation."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 
Jour,  of  Agr.  Research,  Vol.  3,  No.  2,  pp.  144,  145,  1914. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  DEFERRED   GRAZING 


77 


larger  nonreserved  portion.  In  actual  practice  it  is  found  ad- 
vantageous to  reserve  a  portion  of  the  pasture  for  fall  grazing, 
as  it  insures  ample  feed  when  the  average  pasture  would  other- 
wise be  somewhat  closely  cropped. 

Another  advantage  of  deferred  grazing  is  that  the  planting  of 
the  seed  insures  satisfactory  reproduction  (Fig.  24).  On  areas 
where  the  deferred-grazing  system  is  applied,  seedlings,  and  later 


Fig.  24.  — deferred  CROPPING    VLl^L^    VLAKLOxXL.  GR.^L\G. 
On  the  left  is  shown  a  bunchgrass  pasture  where  deferred  grazing  has  been  strictly  applied  for  three 
successive  years,  on  the  right  an  area  where  season -long  grazing  has  been  the  practice.      The 
vegetation  to  the  left  is  almost  entirely  palatable  and  consists  of  the  best  plants  of  the  region. 
Much  of  the  area  to  the  right  is  barren  or  contains  poisonous  or  unpalatable  plants. 


well-established  plants  of  all  species  adapted  to  the  area,  are 
found.  Not  infrequently  the  stand  more  than  doubles  in  a  single 
season.  Grazing,  even  late  in  the  autumn,  however,  thins  the 
young  seedling  stand;  but  the  damage  is  seldom  serious  and  is 
usually  insignificant  as  compared  with  the  damage  done  on  lands 
grazed  early  in  the  season.     Moreover,  the  loss  of  seedlings  from 


78  NATUR.^L   RESEEDIXG   AND   MAINTENANCE 

fall  grazing  is  largely  offset  by  the  planting  of  an  additional  seed 
crop  from  which  seedlings  arise  in  the  following  year. 

In  recounting  the  advantages  of  the  deferred-grazing  plan  it 
should  not  be  overlooked  that  it  does  away  with  the  fire  hazard 
which  is  increased  by  the  accumulation  of  inflammable  material 
on  areas  protected  yearlong. 

APPLICATION   OF  DEFERRED   GRAZING 

On  range  where  water  is  available  for  livestock  in  the  autumn, 
deferred  grazing  can  generally  be  practiced  with  highly  grati- 
fying results.^  Ample  water  must  be  available  for  the  stock 
after  the  herbage  dries.  In  many  localities  water  may  be  pro- 
vided with  little  cost  by  the  construction  of  dams,  by  the  pro- 
tection or  development  of  springs,  or  by  the  development  of 
wells  and  the  building  of  windmills.     (See  Chap.  XV.) 

Area  to  be  Reserved.  —  In  applying  the  deferred-grazing 
system  the  first  points  to  consider  are  the  time  at  which  the  seed 
of  the  most  important  forage  plants  matures  and  the  length  of 
the  grazing  period  that  remains  after  seed  maturity.  On  high 
summer  ranges,  such  as  those  on  the  National  Forests,  one-fifth 
to  one-fourth  of  the  grazing  season  remains  between  the  time  of 
seed  maturity  and  the  coming  of  permanent  snows.  According- 
ly, at  least  one-fifth  of  the  grazing  capacity  of  the  entire  pasture 
or  allotment  may  be  reserved  annually  for  deferred  grazing. 
At  lower  elevations  proportionately  larger  areas  may  be  reserved 
for  reseeding,  as  the  seed  crop  ripens  correspondingly  earlier. 

General  Directions.  —  When  an  area  is  selected  for  reseeding, 
it  should  be  strictly  reserved  for  late  grazing,  and  no  trespassing 
by  any  class  of  stock  should  be  permitted.  The  first  year  the 
forage  should  be  closely  but  not  destructively  utilized.  Regard- 
less of  the  stock  grazed,  the  herder  should  see  to  it  that  the  ani- 
mals pass  at  least  once  over  the  entire  area  in  order  to  insure 
planting  of  the  seed.  The  following  season  the  same  area  should 
again  be  reserved  for  deferred  grazing,  for,  if  the  vegetation  is 
much  weakened  from  previous  ruthless  grazing,  two  or  more 

'  Jardine,  James  T.,  "Improvement  and  Management  of  Native  Pastures  in 
the  West."     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Yearbook,  1915,  p.  304. 


A   SPECIFIC   CASE 


79 


seasons  of  deferred  grazing  will  be  required  to  rejuvenate  the 
seed  plants  and  insure  the  production  of  ample  seed. 

It  is  highly  important  that  grazing  be  avoided  until  the  young 
plants  are  well  established.  Grazing  the  second  season  after  the 
production  of  a  good  seed  crop  should  be  considerably  lighter 
than  in  the  first  year  of  deferred  grazing,  for  otherwise  a  large 
proportion  of  the  seedling  stand  will  be  destroyed.  On  sheep 
range  the  herder  should  avoid  massing  the  band  or  jamming 
the  animals  by  the  excessive  use  of  dogs.  The  band  should  be 
given  the  greatest  possible  freedom  at  all  times. 

When  the  first  area  selected  for  deferred  grazing  is  well  re- 
vegetated,  another  portion  of  the  pasture  in  need  of  reseeding 
should  be  selected  and  handled  according  to  the  same  plan. 
This  scheme  of  alternating  the  deferred  grazing  will,  in  time, 
restore  the  vegetation  over  the  entire  pasture  area. 

A  Specific  Case.  —  As  an  illustration  of  the  practical  appH- 
cation  of  deferred  and  rotation  grazing,  the  revegetation  of  a 
bunchgrass  pasture  of  750  acres  may  be  considered.  On  the 
assumption  that  a  stream  passes  through  its  entire  length,  the 
pasture  may  be  divided  by  two  cross  fences  into  areas  of  about 
250  acres  each,  the  exact  size  depending  on  the  type  of  forage, 
time  of  seed  maturity,  and  certain  other  points  of  advantage. 
The  grazing  plan  would  then  proceed  as  indicated  in  the  follow- 
ing table. 

Plan  of  Pasturing  for  Revegetation  by  Deferred  and  Rotation 
Grazing 


Year 

Area 
A 

Area 
B 

Area 
C 

1921 

First 

Second 

Last 

1922 

Second 

First 

Last 

1923 

First 

Last 

Second 

1924 

Second 

Last 

First 

1925 

Last 

Second 

First 

1926 

Last 

First 

Second 

1927 

Second 

First 

Last 

Area  C  is  the  first  selected  for  deferred  grazing  in  192 1,  as  it  is 
assumed  to  be  most  in  need  of  reseeding.    This  season  area  A 


8o  NATURAL   RESEEDING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

is  grazed  first,  and  area  B  second.  In  order  to  provide  thorough 
planting  of  the  seed  area,  area  C  is  cropped  closely  —  much 
more  heavily  than  areas  A  and  B.  In  1922,  area  C  is 
again  grazed  last,  but  this  time  moderately  to  avoid  destruction 
of  the  seedling  plants;  area  B  is  grazed  first;  and  area  A  second. 
In  1923,  area  B  is  cropped  closely  according  to  the  deferred- 
grazing  plan;    area  A  is  grazed  first;    and  area  C  second.     In 

1924,  area  B  is  again  reserved  for  moderate  grazing  after 
seed  maturity;    area  C  is  grazed  first;   and  area  A  second.     In 

1925,  area  A  is  selected  for  deferred  grazing  and  is  cropped 
closely;  area  C  is  grazed  first;  and  area  B  second.  In  1926, 
area  A  is  moderately  grazed  after  seed  maturity ;  area  B  is  pas- 
tured first;  and  area  C  second.  After  that,  the  plan,  as  indi- 
cated in  the  table,  would  be  repeated,  except  that  in  1927  area 
B  should  be  cropped  first  and  area  A  second,  in  order  to  foster 
the  establishment  of  the  young  seedlings  on  the  latter  area. 

Although  a  knowledge  of  the  individual  pasture,  particularly 
of  the  character  and  density  of  the  vegetation,  type  of  soil,  and 
water  facilities,  is  necessary  in  order  to  propose  a  judicious,  far- 
reaching  grazing  plan,  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  apply  the 
principles  here  laid  down.  By  the  use  of  the  plan  proposed,  all 
parts  of  the  pasture  will  be  reseeded  and  the  resulting  increase  in 
the  stand  maintained  indefinitely. 

Deferred  Grazing  on  Range  of  "  Winter  Annuals."  —  The 
foothill  and  valley  (winter)  ranges  of  CaHfornia,  like  those  of 
the  Southwest,  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  growth  of  "  winter 
annuals "  —  plants  like  alfilaria,  bur  clover,  and  wild  oats. 
Although  this  type  of  cover  completes  its  cycle  of  development 
in  one  year,  the  seed  germinates  early  in  the  winter,  and  growth 
continues  throughout  the  winter  and  spring.  It  is  the  practice 
generally  to  begin  cropping  these  lands  early  in  the  winter, 
when  the  growth  is  well  started,  and  continue  until  the  herb- 
age dries  up  in  the  spring.  Where  this  practice  has  continued 
year  after  year  the  lands  are  badly  run  down,  chiefly  because 
of  the  failure  of  the  more  palatable  plants  to  produce  seed. 

In  192 1  tests  were  initiated  on  foothill  (winter)  ranges  in 
various  parts  of  California,  the  object  being  to  apply  the  de- 


RESEEDING   COMPLICATIONS  8 1 

ferred-grazing  system  in  some  practical  way.  Actual  grazing 
tests  have  shown  clearly  that  a  good  seed  crop  and  forage  in- 
crement may  be  expected,  even  when  the  herbage  is  closely 
cropped,  if  the  animals  are  removed  from  the  range  by  about 
the  middle  of  March.  Ordinarily  the  more  important  annual 
species  mature  in  the  spring  and  produce  viable  seed  in  about 
six  weeks.  The  plan  of  deferring  or  discontinuing  grazing 
sufficiently  early  in  the  spring  to  provide  seed  gives  great  prom- 
ise of  effective  revegetation  of  these  ranges.  The  extent  of  the 
application  of  this  reseeding  plan  is  determined  largely  by  the 
possibihties  (i)  of  reserving  range  in  the  spring  for  the  animals 
that  are  to  be  removed  from  the  area  in  need  of  reseeding,  and 
(2)  of  producing  supplemental  roughage  for  the  stock  during 
the  time  required  for  the  range  plants  to  develop  a  seed  crop, 
wherever  a  portion  of  the  range  can  not  be  reserved. 

Stockmen  in  CaHfornia  are  now  adopting  this  reseeding  plan; 
for,  if  the  area  to  be  reserved  is  grazed  up  to  about  March  15, 
there  is  practically  no  loss  of  forage.  Moreover,  the  additional 
feed  originating  from  the  seed  produced  soon  increases  appreci- 
ably the  grazing  capacity  of  the  lands,  thereby  more  than 
offsetting  any  disadvantage  encountered  in  providing  the  neces- 
sary protection.  After  one  part  of  the  pasture  or  range  unit 
is  reseeded  protection  during  the  spring  should  be  apphed  to 
another  part,  and  the  rotation  continued  indefinitely  as  de- 
scribed in  applying  the  deferred-grazing  system  on  the  high 
mountain  range. 

Reseeding  Complications.  —  If  grazing  could  be  deferred  for 
two  or  three  seasons  in  succession  over  an  entire  pasture  or  range 
unit,  the  whole  would  soon  be  reseeded.  Deferring  the  grazing 
to  such  an  extent,  however,  is  clearly  impracticable,  because, 
as  already  pointed  out,  pasture  is  in  demand  throughout  the 
growing  season. 

Although  the  deferred-grazing  system  is  applicable  generally 
on  all  classes  of  native  western  pasture,  it  is  not  without  certain 
drawbacks.  On  sheep  range,  because  the  animals  are  constantly 
vmder  the  control  of  a  herder,  deferred  grazing  is  readily  and 
effectively   applied.     Likewise,   on   fenced   cattle   pastures   the 


82  NATURAL  RESEEDING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

system  is  effectively  applied  by  means  of  division  fences.  On 
unfenced  cattle  range,  however,  many  complications  must  be, 
and  usually  can  be,  overcome. 

On  mountain  cattle  ranges  it  is  often  more  difficult  to  reserve 
forage  until  the  seed  has  matured  than  on  the  lower,  less  rugged 
lands.  The  situation  is  compHcated  by  the  following  conditions: 
(i)  Because  of  the  diversity  in  elevation  and  slope  all  the  forage 
in  the  mountains  does  not  start  to  grow  at  the  same  time;  (2)  the 
character  of  the  forage  is  widely  variable  as  a  result  of  the  differ- 
ent topographic  features  and  the  different  elevations;  (3)  water 
is  often  unevenly  distributed  and  the  supply  not  infrequently 
temporary ;  and  (4)  the  lack  of  fences  makes  difficult  the  control 
of  cattle. 

The  lower  reaches  of  mountain  range  furnish  ideal  spring  feed 
and  should  be  set  aside  for  such  use.  Lands  of  medium  elevation 
produce  succulent  and  otherwise  desirable  forage  in  midsummer 
and  should  not  be  overrun  by  stock  until  the  forage  is  nutritious 
and  has  made  sufficient  growth  to  withstand  grazing.  The  high 
mountain  lands,  whose  herbage  is  seldom  sufficiently  developed 
until  July  to  afford  economical  grazing,  furnish  superb  late  sum- 
mer and  autumn  feed,  and  they  should  not  be  cropped  early  in 
the  season. 

Cattle  have  a  tendency  to  drift  to  the  higher  lands.  Not  in- 
frequently they  will  leave  a  deHcious  menu  of  feed  in  the  lower 
types  for  a  bit  of  mountain  scenery.  Herding  does  much  to 
prevent  this  drifting,  but  herding  is  expensive  at  best.  The 
most  feasible  plan  is  to  fence  the  spring,  midsummer,  and  late 
summer  and  autumn  range  into  large  units.  The  initial  cost  of 
fencing  is  high,  but  the  saving  of  the  herder's  wages  will  often 
pay  for  the  fence  before  it  has  to  be  replaced.  Moreover,  a  fence 
is  much  more  effective  than  herding  in  the  control  of  cattle. 
The  effective  practice  of  the  deferred  and  rotation  grazing  system 
within  each  seasonal  unit,  however,  requires  suitable  division 
fences,  or  effective  herding,  or  some  other  control.  If  there  are 
no  cross  fences,  and  if  no  herder  is  employed,  considerable 
can  be  accomplished  by  properly  distributing  the  stock.     This  is 


QUESTIONS  83 

done  most  effectively  by  the  judicious  development  of  water 
and  the  selection  of  salting  stations. 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Do  not  overgraze  the  range.  Limit  the  number  of  stock 
to  what  the  pasture  as  a  whole  will  support  in  good  condition  in 
years  of  average  precipitation  and  growth. 

2.  Do  not  admit  the  stock  in  the  spring  until  the  herbaceous 
forage  is  sufficiently  developed  to  afford  a  good  bite  —  say,  until 
it  averages  about  6  inches  in  height. 

3.  Avoid  overgrazing  in  early  spring  when  the  soil  is  wet. 

4.  Fence,  herd,  salt,  or  otherwise  control  cattle  so  that  the 
animals  will  be  held  in  the  major  seasonal  grazing  units. 

5.  Secure  at  all  times  equitable  distribution  of  the  stock 
within  a  pasture  (seasonal)  unit.  This  can  be  done  most  effec- 
tively on  cattle  ranges  by  cross  fencing  or  by  the  proper  distri- 
bution of  water  and  salt,  or  preferably  by  a  combination  of  these. 

6.  Practice  deferred  grazing  on  at  least  one-fifth  of  the  pasture 
each  year.  As  each  selected  area  is  revegetated,  rotate  the  late 
grazing  in  order  to  keep  the  plant  cover  as  a  whole  vigorous  and 
productive  at  all  times. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  did  not  the  enormous  droves  of  buflfaloes  that  once  roved  over  the 
range  cause  depletion  of  the  native  western  grazing  grounds?  Discuss  the 
significance  of  this  fact  in  connection  with  revegetation. 

2.  Discuss  the  economics  of  overgrazing. 

3.  What  are  the  chief  points  to  be  considered,  so  far  as  the  plants  are 
concerned,  in  revcgetating  an  overgrazed  pasture? 

4.  What  is  the  physiological  significance  of  vigorous  plant  growth  in  early 
spring? 

5.  Does  frequent  harvesting  of  forage  plants  in  a  single  season  increase  or 
decrease  the  forage  yield?    Why? 

6.  Discuss  the  relation  of  vigorous  growth  of  bunchgrasses  to  seed  pro- 
duction. 

7.  What  are  the  chief  disadvantages  of  yearlong  grazing  as  related  to 
revegetation? 

8.  Show  why  yearlong  protection  is  not  an  effective  means  of  reseeding 
depleted  pastures. 

9.  What  are  the  essential  principles  of  the  deferred-grazing  system? 


84  NATURAL  RESEEDING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

10.  Outline  a  future  grazing  plan  for  the  revegetation  of  a  pasture  fenced 
off  into  divisions  of  equal  grazing  capacity. 

11.  Compare  the  merits  of  deferred  grazing  with  those  of  (i)  yearlong 
grazing  and  (2)  yearlong  protection. 

12.  Discuss  the  palatability  of  mature  native  forage  characteristic  of  far 
western  ranges. 

13.  How  would  you  decide  the  acreage  that  may  safely  be  set  aside  for 
deferred  grazing  each  year? 

14.  Discuss  the  compUcations  encountered  in  applying  deferred  grazing 
on  open  cattle  range.    How  may  these  compUcations  be  overcome? 

15.  Name  five  impx)rtant  conditions  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  preventing 
pasture  abuse  and  in  revegetating  depleted  native  pastures. 


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Associations.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  700,  1918. 
Important  Range  Plants:  Their  Life  History  and  Forage  Value.     U.  S. 

Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  545,  1917. 
Natural  Revegetation  of  Range  Lands  Based  upon  Growth  Require- 
ments and  Life  History  of  the  Vegetation.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 

Jour,  of  Agr.  Research,  Vol.  3,  No.  2,  1914. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  85 

Sampson,  Arthur  W.     Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Manage- 
ment.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  791,  1919. 
Range  Improvement  by  Deferred  and  Rotation  Grazing.     U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.  Bui.  34,  1913. 
ScRiBNER,  F.  Lamson-.    Economic  Grasses.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of 

Agrost.,  Bui.  14,  1900. 
Smith,  J.  G.    Forage  Conditions  of  the  Prairie  Region.    U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.  Yearbook,  1895. 
Grazing  Problems  in  the  Southwest  and  How  to  Meet  Them.    U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Agrost.,  Bui.  16,  1899. 
Thornber,  J.  J.    Alfilaria  as  a  Forage  Plant  in  Arizona.    Ariz.  Agr.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bui.  52,  1906. 
The  Grazing  Ranges  of  Arizona.     Ariz.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  65,  1910. 
WOOTON,  E.  O.     Carrying  Capacity  of  Grazing  Ranges  in  Southern  Ari- 
zona.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  367,  1916. 
Factors  Affecting  Range  Management  in  New  Mexico.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.  Bui.  211,  1915. 


CHAPTER  V 

IMPROVEMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM 
PASTURES 

"  Show  me  your  pasture  and  I'll  tell  you  what  figures  you  may 
place  on  the  note."  Thus  concluded  the  country  banker  to 
the  stockman-farmer  who  was  soliciting  funds  to  be  used  in 
the  spring  planting.  The  financier  was  himself  a  successful 
farmer,  and  the  correctness  of  his  logic  cannot  be  denied,  for 
good  pasture  is  everywhere  concomitant  with  sound  manage- 
ment of  the  farm  as  a  whole. 

Without  ample  pasture  feed  of  good  quality  it  is  quite  as 
impossible  to  succeed  in  the  production  of  meats  and  dairy 
products  as  it  is  to  maintain  economically  the  fertility  of  the 
soil.  The  highest  type  of  agriculture  is  invariably  found  in 
those  regions  where  pasture  crops  and  livestock  are  prominent. 
A  good  pasture  is  an  asset  and  credit  to  any  farm;  a  poor  one 
may  be  a  distinct  liability,  and  it  is  a  reflection  on  the  owner. 

Of  the  millions  of  acres  of  farm  pasture  lands  in  the  United 
States,  by  far  the  greater  portion  consists  of  areas  inferior  in 
quahty  to  those  under  tillage.  This,  to  be  sure,  is  a  natural 
condition.  In  the  settlement  of  any  country  the  most  easily 
tilled  and  readily  accessible  lands  —  those  upon  which  manual 
labor  is  to  be  expended  —  are  the  first  to  grow  the  wheat,  barley, 
and  corn,  and  contribute  to  the  bread  supply  of  the  nation. 
The  poorly  drained  portion,  or  the  remote  ''  forty  "  with  a  few 
clumps  of  willows  or  other  rank-growing  vegetation,  is  selected 
for  the  pasture.  The  possibilities  of  improvement  of  such  lands 
are  practically  unlimited.  Drainage  alone,  for  instance,  may 
result  in  completely  replacing  a  rank,  unpalatable  cover  by 
edible  vegetation;  or,  indeed,  the  proper  stocking  of  the  lands 
may  so   improve    their    crop  production  that    these   "  outcast 

86 


WHAT  IS  GOOD   PASTURE  87 

acres  "  may  make  as  good  a  return  as  do  the  higher-priced  tilled 
lands. 

What  is  Good  Pasture?  —  A  first-class  pasture  furnishes  the 
cheapest  means  of  growing  livestock.  Grazing  provides  a  way 
of  utilizing  the  feed  on  the  cheaper  lands  which  otherwise  could 
not  be  harvested.  Often  the  older,  properly  managed  pastures 
are  the  most  profitable  acres  on  the  farm,  as  the  labor  cost  of 
pasture  management  is  very  low.  An  acre  of  good  pasture  may 
yield  200  to  450  pounds  of  prime  beef  per  season. 

When  the  value  of  pasture  land  is  estimated,  the  yield  per 
unit  of  surface,  or  of  a  type,  is  often  considered  without  special 
reference  to  the  palatability  and  quality  of  the  vegetation. 
Generally  the  quahty  of  the  feed  is  quite  as  important  as  is  the 
yield  per  acre. 

The  true  value  of  a  pasture  is  best  based  on  its  ability  to  pro- 
duce mutton,  beef,  milk,  or  other  animal  products.  It  is  de- 
sirable, though  difficult,  to  ascertain  the  "  net  available  nu- 
trients "  produced  per  acre  or  for  the  pasture  as  a  whole.  Some 
of  the  points  to  be  considered  in  judging  the  value  of  a  pasture 
are: 

(i)  Density,  palatability,  and  digestibihty  of  the  plant 
cover  and  the  permanency  of  the  stand.  The  density,  pala- 
tability, and  digestibility  factors  determine  the  amount  and 
nutrient  value  of  the  forage  relished  by  stock.  Permanency  of 
the  cover  has  to  do  with  the  character  of  the  vegetation,  whether 
it  consists  of  a  long-lived  hardy  perennial  cover  like  Kentucky 
bluegrass,  of  biennial  forms  like  sweet  clover,  or  of  annual  plants 
such  as  rape  or  millet. 

(2)  Distance  the  animals  must  travel  to  obtain  food  and 
water.  Animals  in  high  condition  of  flesh,  or  those  producing  an 
abundance  of  milk,  are  not  found  where  they  must  travel  far 
for  food  and  water  any  more  than  they  are  seen  on  lean  pastures. 

(3)  The  earliness  of  the  feed  and  its  ability  to  carry  the  stock 
through  the  normal  grazing  season.  The  time  at  which  the 
different  forms  of  plant  life  begin  growth  in  the  spring  varies 
appreciably  and  often  detennines  the  time  at  which  the  forage 
is  available  for  spring  grazing.     Sodgrasses,   though  not  neces- 


88     IMPROVEMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM  PASTURES 

sarily  the  first  to  resume  growth,  withstand  early  grazing  much 
better  than  do  bunchgrasses.  Accordingly,  the  former  are  less 
fluctuating  in  their  yield  from  year  to  year  than  are  other  forms. 

Certain  conditions  of  environment  favor  the  production  of  a 
large  amount  of  forage  of  good  quality,  A  fertile  soil,  ample 
moisture,  and  favorable  temperatures  are  essential  to  large 
forage  production.  Alluvial  soils  are  highly  esteemed  as  pasture 
land.  Certain  forage  species  are  much  more  susceptible  to  low 
temperatures  or  frosts  than  are  others,  and  their  palatability 
and  nutritiousness  may  change  appreciably  as  the  season  ad- 
vances. It  is  important  that  a  pasture  plant  shall  remain 
palatable  and  nutritious  after  growth  has  ceased. 

Blinds  of  Pasture.  —  Pastures  are  classified  as  annual, 
temporary,  or  permanent,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  plant 
cover  and  the  use  made  of  the  lands. 

An  annual  pasture  supports  vegetation  that  endures  for  but 
one  season  and  is  designed  to  carry  stock  for  such  a  period  only. 
Annual  forage  crops  are  almost  invariably  cropped  before  the 
seed  matures.  They  may  furnish  feed  throughout  the  growing 
season  or  for  only  a  part  of  it. 

A  temporary  pasture  may  be  sown  to  annual  or  short-lived 
perennial  plants.  It  is  used  as  pasture  for  more  than  one  season 
but  seldom  for  several  years  in  succession. 

A  permanent  pasture  supports  perennial  vegetation,  which, 
with  a  favorable  environment,  is  used  for  foraging  purposes  for 
many  years  in  succession.  Sodgrasses  are  the  most  desirable, 
as  a  good  turf  does  not  permit  weeds  to  gain  much  headway. 
The  forage  yield  of  sodgrasses  is  usually  heavy,  and  in  the  humid 
regions  such  a  cover  is  not  readily  injured  by  early  or  close  graz- 
ing. Moreover,  because  of  the  mass  of  ramifying  roots,  a  large 
proportion  of  which  each  year  enters  into  the  formation  of 
humus,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  fairly  well  maintained.  Ken- 
tucky bluegrass,  redtop,  and  Hungarian  bromegrass  are  good 
examples  of  a  desirable  permanent  sod  cover.  Less  enduring 
are  pastures  of  timothy,  orchardgrass,  and  red  clover. 

Why  Pastures  "  Run  Out."  —  Farmers  from  all  sections  of 
the  country  are  asking  why  pastures  deteriorate.     The  answer 


GROWTH  FORMS  OF  PASTURE  AND  HAY  PLANTS  89 

to  the  question  is  not  the  same  everywhere,  for  various  factors 
may  cause  a  decline  in  the  yield  of  forage.  A  declining  yield 
may  be  due  to  an  excessive  amount  of  weeds,  to  abnormal  cli- 
mate, to  bad  handling  of  the  stock,  or  to  various  alHed  con- 
ditions. 

Natural  succession,  or  a  normal  tendency  in  nature  to  a 
rotation  of  crops,  as  on  timberlands,  is  going  on  all  the  time.  As 
choke  cherry  or  aspen  are  the  natural  invaders  of  a  cut-over 
or  burned  fir  type,  so  useless  weeds  may  occupy  grasslands  if 
no  effort  is  made  to  check  them. 

Abnormal  changes  in  autumn  or  winter  weather,  alternate 
freezing  and  thawing,  and  exposure  due  to  the  absence  of  the 
usual  blanket  of  snow  are  injurious  to  many  forms  of  grasses 
and  other  vegetation. 

Drought  injures  forage  plants  to  a  very  considerable  extent. 
A  sudden  decline  in  the  water  content  of  the  soil  may  cause  the 
vegetation  to  wilt  beyond  recovery  with  the  root  system  quite 
intact,  or  the  soil  may  break  and  crack  and  tear  the  roots  asunder. 
Deep-rooted  grasses  are  usually  less  liable  to  injury  from  drought 
than  are  shallow-rooted  forms. 

Faulty  methods  of  grazing,  as  pointed  out,  may  seriously  thin 
the  stand,  particularly  of  bunchgrass  vegetation.  The  plants 
are  sometimes  literally  starved  to  death  by  too  early  or  close 
cropping.  Then,  too,  excessively  close  grazing  in  the  fall  de- 
stroys the  protection  otherwise  afforded  by  the  forage  during 
the  winter.  Furthermore,  injudicious  grazing  may  change  the 
texture  of  the  soil  through  heavy  packing.  The  crop-producing 
power  of  heavily  packed  soils  falls  rapidly  until  those  soils  prac- 
tically cease  to  support  plant  life. 

Growth  Forms  of  Pasture  and  Hay  Plants.  —  The  habit  of 
growth  of  the  underground  parts  makes  possible  a  division  of 
forage  plants  into  two  distinct  forms.  Those  that  spread  by 
rootstocks  or  rhizomes  and  form  a  continuous,  more  or  less  ex- 
tensive sod,  like  Kentucky  bluegrass,  are  the  most  desirable  and 
are  largely  confined  to  the  humid  and  semi-humid  regions. 
Those  whose  growth  is  confined  to  a  tuft  or  bunch,  like  slender 
wheatgrass,  and  whose  perpetuation  and  spread  is  dependent 


90    IMPROVEMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM  PASTURES 

on  seed,  are  most  common  in  the  arid  regions.  Many  culti- 
vated forms,  like  orchardgrass,  also  have  this  habit  of  growth. 
The  sod  forms  spread  much  more  rapidly  than  do  those  of  the 
bunch  habit  of  growth.  The  form  of  growth  is  determined  by 
the  way  the  new  stems  or  branches  develop. 

In  bunchgrasses  the  root  stems,  or  "  tillers,"  which  originate 
a  short  distance  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  grow  up  inside  of 
the  leaf  sheath  (Fig.  25).  In  sodgrasses  the  end  of  the  new 
branch  forces  its  way  through  the  base  of  the  leaf  sheath  and 
spreads  to  varying  distances  before  coming  up.  At  the  point 
where  it  ascends  a  number  of  anchor  and  feeding  roots  usually 
form  (Fig.  26). 

In  certain  humid  regions  well-established  sod  pastures  are 
often  grazed  early  and  repeatedly  year  after  year  without  ap- 
parent damage;  but  such  repeated  grazing  of  a  bunchgrass 
pasture  soon  causes  its  destruction. 

The  life  period  of  forage  plants  is  not  well  known.  Most 
perennial  grasses  in  favorable  environment  are  long-lived,  but 
the  same  species  under  rigorous  conditions  may  live  but  a  short 
time.  In  the  Northwest  the  yield  of  timothy  usually  declines 
sharply  after  the  fifth  or  sixth  year.  If,  however,  a  suitable 
fertilizer  is  added,  timothy  may  yield  satisfactorily  for  twice 
that  period.  A  sod  cover  may  endure  for  a  hundred  years  or 
more;  but,  as  the  stand  is  continuously  renewed  by  plants  origi- 
nating from  the  rootstocks  or  stolons,  the  entire  stand  is  rejuve- 
nated from  time  to  time. 

HOW  THE  FARMER  MAY  IMPROVE  THE  PASTURE 

In  some  countries  the  real  brains  of  the  farm  are  devoted  to 
pasture  management.  While  a  permanent  pasture  may  con- 
tinue to  produce  for  many  years,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  tillage 
system  requires  more  careful  attention  or  provision  than  does 
the  continuous  production  of  a  highly  nutritious,  heavy-yielding 
forage  crop.  Choice  forage  should  occupy  the  entire  pasture. 
Land  values  are  now  too  high  for  only  a  portion  of  the  pasture 
vegetation  to  be  of  use  as  forage. 

Unfortunately,   very   Httle   experimental   work   has   hitherto 


HOW  THE  FARMER  MAY  IMPROVE  THE  PASTURE  91 


Fig.  2S.  — a  TYPICAL  FORM  OF   BUNCHGRASS. 
As  the  root  stems  go  up  inside  of  the  leaf  sheath,  the  roots  and  basal  leaf  blades  are  densely  "bunched.' 


92    impro\t:ment  and  management  of  farm  pastures 


Fig.  26.  — a  T\TIC\L  FORM  OF  SODGRASS. 
Because  the  forming  branches  force  their  way  through  the  base  of  the  leaf  sheath  and  grow  to  a  con- 
siderable length  before  turning  upward,  the  stems  and  leaf  blades  are  often  quite  remote  from  the 

original  point  of  growth. 

been  done  over  the  pasture  region  as  a  whole  upon  which  pasture- 
management  plans  may  safely  be  based.  For  this  reason  the 
grazing  systems  ordinarily  proposed  are  largely  theoretical. 
So-called  "  blanket  "  recommendations,  alleged  to  apply  to  all 
regions,  types  of  vegetation,  soils,  and  climatic  conditions,  have 
been  made.  Often  these  are  liable  to  be  erroneous  rather 
than  constructive.  The  follo\ving  statements,  taken  from  the 
current  Kterature  on  pasture  management,  are  typical  of  what 
the  farmer  is  told  to  do. 


1.  Let  the  grass  head  out  before  turning  stock  on  it  in  the  spring. 

2.  Do  not  let  the  grass  grow  tall  and  get  tough  before  grazing  it  in  the 
spring. 


MANAGEMENT  OF   BLUEGRASS   PASTURES  93 

3.  The  kind  of  plants  in  the  pasture  has  much  to  do  with  its  value. 

4.  There  is  no  relation  between  botanical  composition  of  the  herbage  of  a 
pasture  and  its  feeding  value. 

5.  Disk  the  pasture. 

6.  There  is  no  need  of  harrowing  the  pasture  as  the  ground  is  pulverized 
by  the  grazing  of  the  stock. 

7.  Keep  the  weeds  out  by  grazing  the  pasture  with  sheep. 

8.  Sheep  should  not  be  used  on  grassland  to  destroy  weeds,  for  their  sharp 
noses  permit  them  to  seek  out  and  destroy  the  young  sprouting  grass. 

9.  Maintain  the  productivity  of  the  pasture  by  applying  a  top  dressing 
of  manure  and  fertilizers. 

10.  Permanent  pastures  are  kept  productive  because  of  the  droppings  from 
the  animals  grazed. 

11.  Reseed  the  pasture  to  sod  grasses  and  clovers. 

12.  Allow  the  plants  to  go  to  seed  in  order  that  the  stand  may  be  maintained. 

In  view  of  the  conflicting  directions  offered,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  grazing  capacity  of  many  a  farm  paddock  is 
decHning  sharply.  Especially  is  this  true  where  the  sodgrasses 
do  not  grow.  As  a  field  for  investigation,  few  Hues  of  farm  re- 
search offer  greater  possibilities  of  service  than  does  that  of  the 
farm  pasture. 

It  is  the  aim  in  the  following  pages  to  point  out  methods  of 
improvement  which  have  been  thoroughly  tested  in  practice 
and  are  known  to  be  safe. 

Management  of  Bluegrass  Pastures.  —  East  of  the  Great 
Plains,  north  of  Arkansas  and  North  Carolina,  and  southward 
in  the  cooler  mountains,  Kentucky  bluegrass,  sometimes  called 
Junegrass,  is  the  pasture  plant  par  excellence.  It  is  an  aggressive 
species  in  favorable  soils  and  climate,  where  it  usually  forms  a 
complete  sod. 

Carrier  and  Oakley,  working  at  the  Virginia  Station,^  con- 
ducted fundamental  investigations  relative  to  methods  of  crop- 
ping and  treating  representative  selected  pasture  lots.  The 
plan  of  study  was  based  on  the  prevailing  practices  of  farmers 
of  the  State  and  made  use  of  methods  developed  by  the  investi- 
gators themselves. 

1  Carrier,  Lyman,  and  Oakley,  R.  A.,  "The  Management  of  Bluegrass  Pastures." 
Va.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  204,  1914. 


94    IMPROVEMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM  PASTURES 

One  pasture  was  disked  once  each  spring  with  an  ordinary  disk 
harrow.  As  a  check  a  similar  pasture  was  untreated.  The 
animals  were  kept  in  one  pasture  at  a  time  and  every  ten  days 
they  were  changed  from  one  field  to  the  other. 

Another  area  was  disked  with  the  ordinary  disk  harrow, 
whereas  the  adjoining  area  was  untreated.  The  animals  grazed 
were  likewise  alternated  every  ten  days  from  the  one  field  to  the 
other. 

Still  another  pasture  lot  was  both  disked  and  harrowed,  the 
treatment  being  somewhat  severe.  An  untreated  field  served 
as  a  check,  and  the  animals  grazed  were  alternated  from  the 
one  enclosure  to  the  other  every  twenty  days. 

Two  paddocks  were  not  treated.  These  plots  were  grazed 
continuously  throughout  the  summer,  but  the  one  was  cropped 
from  two  to  three  times  more  heavily  than  the  other. 

Additional  small  plots  were  established  from  which  the  herb- 
age was  removed  by  cutting  with  a  lawn  mower,  and  the  dry 
weight  of  the  harvest  was  recorded.  These  plots  were  harrowed 
or  otherwise  treated  to  correspond  more  or  less  with  the  treat- 
ment of  the  pastured  areas. 

Alternate  versus  Continuous  Grazing.  —  Carrier  and  Oakley 
point  out  that  the  division  of  pastures  with  a  view  to  giving 
each  part  a  rest  by  alternate  cropping  during  the  growing  season 
has  long  been  recommended  as  a  means  of  increasing  their  graz- 
ing capacity.  That  such  a  system  works  out  satisfactorily  on 
bunchgrass  lands  in  the  far  West  has  been  clearly  demonstrated 
by  the  writer;^  but  these  findings  do  not  at  all  prove  what  may 
be  the  results  on  sodland  pastures. 

Carrier  and  Oakley  found  only  a  slight  difference  in  the  forage 
yield  on  bluegrass  pasture .     They  conclude : 

While  the  results  of  these  three  years  will  not  settle  the  question  of  alternate 
or  continuous  grazing  for  all  time,  nor  for  all  conditions,  they  at  least  show  very 
clearly  that  the  unqualified  recommendation  of  alternate  grazing  is  not  justi- 
fied. We  even  believe  that  they  strongly  indicate  the  slight  value  of  this 
method  in  solving  the  present  pasture  problems  of  Virginia. 

'  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Range  Improvement  by  Deferred  and  Rotation  Graz- 
ing."    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  34,  1913. 


LIGHT    VERSUS  HEAVY  GRAZING  95 

Disking  and  Harrowing.  —  Sodgrasses  often  decline  in  yield 
when  the  surface  of  the  sod  becomes  tightly  bound.  Several 
factors  may  be  responsible  for  this  decline.  Generally,  however, 
the  growth  of  the  vegetation  is  held  in  check  because  of  root 
competition,  the  roots  in  the  upper  few  inches  of  soil  being  over- 
crowded. ]\Ioreover,  where  the  soil  is  deficient  in  lime  the 
decaying  roots  may  bring  about  acidity.  This  is  indicated  by 
the  presence  of  moss  and  other  weeds  that  are  adapted  to  acid 
lands.  Harrowing  or  otherwise  breaking  up  the  tightly  bound 
sod  may  therefore  be  beneficial,  if  for  no  other  reason  than  that 
of  aerating  the  soil  and  improving  its  physical  properties. 

The  investigators  found  only  a  very  slight  difference  in  the 
yield  of  the  disked  or  harrowed  areas  as  compared  with  those 
untreated.  On  the  whole,  the  cost  of  the  treatment  was  not 
justified  on  the  basis  of  the  increase  in  the  yield.  Disking  or 
harrowing,  no  matter  how  carefully  done,  tore  or  cut  the  sod  to 
some  extent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cultural  treatment  was 
found  advantageous  in  that  it  broke  up  and  distributed  the 
droppings  from  the  animals  grazed.  This  is  the  statement  of 
Carrier  and  Oakley: 

The  indiscriminate  recommendation  of  cultural  treatment  of  pastures  is  a 
serious  mistake.  The  experiments  at  Blacksburg,  as  a  whole,  do  not  neces- 
sarily prove  the  futility  of  such  treatment,  but  the  critical  observations  made 
throughout  the  five  years  leave  no  doubt  that  cultural  treatment,  by  almost 
any  means,  must  be  conducted  with  care  and  judgment.  In  view  of  the 
results  of  its  investigations,  the  Experiment  Station  cannot  at  the  present 
time  recommend  cultural  treatment  of  pastures  to  the  farmer. 

Light  versus  Heavy  Grazing.  —  Overgrazing  is  without  doubt 
the  chief  cause  of  the  depletion  of  bunchgrass  or  other  non- 
sodded  lands.  So  convincing  is  this  belief  over  the  devastated 
grazing  grounds  of  the  far  West  that  it  is  commonly  accepted  as 
holding  generally  for  bluegrass  and  other  sod  pastures.  The 
studies  at  the  Virginia  Station,  however,  emphasize  the  danger 
of  applying  the  results  of  treating  one  form  of  plant  growth  to 
a  very  different  type. 

Comparatively  close  grazing  of  well-established  bluegrass 
pasture  resulted  in  the  production  of  many  more  pounds  of  beef 


96    IMPROVEMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM   PASTURES 

per  acre  than  was  produced  from  the  lightly  cropped  paddock. 
Furthermore,  at  the  end  of  the  three  years'  test  the  sod  on  the 
closely  grazed  area  was  in  much  better  condition,  and  there 
were  fewer  weeds,  than  where  light  grazing  was  practiced. 

The  results  reported  may  apply  to  most  bluegrass  and  possibly 
to  other  sodgrass  areas,  but  before  generalizations  may  safely 
be  made  the  test  should  be  extended  to  other  States  and  to  varied 
conditions.  Quite  different  results  from  those  recorded  would 
be  obtained  on  bunchgrass  lands. 

Management  of  Nonsod  Pastures.  —  Overgrazing  is  the 
rule  rather  than  the  exception  on  pastures  in  which  the  pre- 
dominating growth  is  bunchgrass  or  such  other  herbaceous 
vegetation  as  does  not  form  a  sod. 

Number  of  Stock  to  Graze.  —  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  ac- 
curately the  number  of  animals  a  given  pasture  will  safely  carry 


Fig.  27.  — a  farm   pasture   IN   GOOD   CONDITION. 

For  many  years  in  succession  this  pasture  has  been  grazed  on  the  basis  of  one  cow  and  her  calf  to  the 

acre  for  six  and  one-half  months. 

season  after  season.  Unless  one  knows  approximately  how 
many  animals  the  area  has  supported  in  good  condition  in  the 
past,  it  is  best  at  the  outset  to  decide  on  a  figure  somewhat  below 
what  one  would  expect  the  area  to  support  in  the  more  favorable 
seasons  (Fig.  27).  However,  there  are  exceptions  to  this  state- 
ment. For  example,  very  cheap  gains  may  be  made  by  feeding 
a  fairly  heavy  grain  ration  to  "  baby  "  beeves  or   steers  on 


DEFERRED   GRAZING  97 

pasture.  More  animals  may  be  grazed  where  forced  pasture 
feeding  is  practiced  in  the  forepart  of  the  season  than  the  pas- 
ture will  support  throughout  the  entire  grazing  period.  Ac- 
cordingly, before  the  grass  is  closely  cropped  —  say  by  July  i  — 
the  "  fatted  calf  "  has  arrived  at  the  packing  house.  The 
pasture  may  then  be  allowed  to  rest  for  two  or  three  weeks,  after 
which  it  may  be  grazed  closely,  but  not  destructively,  by  a  new 
bunch  of  stocker  cattle. 

If  it  is  not  possible  to  dispose  of  part  or  all  of  the  stock  a  few 
weeks  after  the  grazing  season  begins,  and  so  to  give  some  rest  to 
at  least  a  portion  of  the  pasture,  one  can  not  be  too  cautious 
in  judging  the  number  of  stock  the  pasture  will  support  without 
injury  to  the  vegetation. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  elsewhere  that  a  young  pasture 
plant  needs  its  green  herbage  in  the  spring  of  the  year  with 
which  to  accumulate  food  and  strength  in  order  to  develop 
normally.  Provided  the  welfare  of  the  plant  early  in  the  spring 
is  not  overlooked,  the  plant  will  not  be  weakened  by  moderate 
grazing  later.  If,  however,  the  grazing  is  fairly  heavy  year 
after  year,  the  vegetation  will  require  at  least  a  short  rest  during 
the  growing  season.  The  need  of  rest  will  make  itself  apparent 
in  several  ways,  as  in  a  delay  in  the  beginning  of  growth  in 
the  spring,  lessened  foliage  production,  decrease  in  stature  of 
the  plant,  delay  in  the  time  of  seed  maturity,  and  in  a  failure 
to  produce  a  large  and  fertile  seed  crop. 

Deferred  Grazing.  —  When  the  more  highly  relished  and 
desirable  nonsodforming  pasture  plants  are  not  functioning 
normally,  they  should  be  given  the  required  rest.  From  in- 
vestigations reported  in  Chapter  IV,  it  is  learned  that  this  can 
be  accomplished  without  the  discontinuance  of  grazing  or 
without  even  decreasing  the  number  of  stock  that  this  type  of 
pasture  will  normally  support  throughout  the  season.  Because 
of  the  value  of  the  deferred-grazing  plan,  a  simple  example  is 
restated  here.  The  plan  corresponds  to  that  reported  for  use 
on  western  grazing  lands  where  bunchgrasses  prevail  and  is 
recommended  only  for  lands  that  support  vegetation  of  similar 
growth  habits. 


98    IMPROVEMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM  PASTURES 

Let  it  be  assumed  that  the  depleted  pasture  consists  of  150 
acres.  If  watering  facilities  will  permit,  it  is  proposed  that 
the  pasture  be  divided  by  fencing  into  three  50-acre  tracts. 
Each  enclosure  will  be  grazed  during  the  season,  but  not  simul- 
taneously. If  enclosure  No.  3  is  the  most  seriously  depleted, 
and  No.  i  is  in  the  best  condition,  the  latter  would  be  grazed 
first  in  the  spring,  No.  2  second,  and  No.  3  last,  but  not  until 
the  seed  of  most  of  the  vegetation  has  reached  maturity.  Most 
plants  mature  their  seed  early  enough  in  the  season  so  that  ample 
time  remains  to  graze  the  herbage  thereafter.  The  following 
season  the  grazing  of  the  enclosures  should  be  in  the  same  order 
as  the  first  year,  as  this  arrangement  peiTnits  the  seedlings  on 
area  No.  3  to  become  well  established  before  cropping.  The  plan 
of  deferred  and  rotation  grazing  to  be  pursued  annually  follows: 


Area  No 

I  to  be  grazed 

Area  No.  2 

to  be  grazed 

Area  No.  3 

to  be  grazed 

Spring, 

1921 

Summer, 

1921 

Autumn, 

1921 

Spring, 

1922 

Summer, 

1922 

Autumn, 

1922 

Summer, 

1923 

Autumn, 

1923 

Sprmg, 

1923 

Summer, 

1924 

Autumn, 

1924 

Sprmg, 

1924 

Autumn, 

1925 

Spring, 

1925 

Summer, 

1925 

Autumn, 

1926 

Spring, 

1926 

Summer, 

1926 

After  the  whole  pasture  is  restocked,  the  rotation  grazing 
should  be  continued  in  order  to  keep  the  vegetation  physio- 
logically strong  at  all  times. 

The  grazing  system  here  proposed  will  usually  increase  the 
carrying  capacity  of  bunchgrass  pastures  without  decreasing 
the  number  of  stock  grazed  before  the  partition  fences  were 
built.  On  many  western  ranges  an  increase  of  50  to  more  than 
200  per  cent  in  the  carrying  capacity  has  been  obtained  within 
three  seasons  of  such  deferred  grazing. 

Fertilizers  for  Pasture  and  Grassland.  —  Once  a  grass  area  is 
well  established,  it  is  seldom  given  much  care  or  treatment. 
Grasslands,  however,  often  respond  remarkably  well  to  fer- 
tiHzers,  the  growth  being  rapid  and  the  yield  large.  Pastures 
can  not  be  expected  to  maintain  their  yield  permanently  unless 


KINDS  OF   FERTILIZERS  99 

a  portion  of  the  plant  foods  removed  by  the  growing  crop  is 
replaced  occasionally,  for  the  production  and  removal  of  flesh, 
bone,  milk,  and  wool  will  sooner  or  later  reduce  the  supply  of 
plant  food  in  the  soil. 

If  the  soil  is  acid,  this  condition  must  first  of  all  be  corrected 
by  the  addition  of  lime;  otherwise  fertilizers  will  do  little  good. 
Acid  soils  are  comjnon  in  the  Northern  States,  and  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  Ohio.  If  the  rest  of  the  farm  needs  liming,  so  do 
the  pasture  and  other  grass  areas  —  possibly  more  than  do  the 
cultivated  fields.  But  before  applying  lime  one  should  be  sure 
that  he  is  making  no  mistake.  Do  the  clovers  grow  well  there? 
If  so,  there  is  already  enough  or  nearly  enough  lime.  Is  moss  or 
other  vegetation  common  to  acid  soils  appearing?  If  so,  lime 
is  needed.  Invariably  the  famous  pasture  regions  of  the  world 
are  on  soils  that  contain  an  abundance  of  lime.  Good  results 
from  the  application  of  fertilizers  and  manure  presuppose  a 
dense  grass  growth,  an  abundance  of  feeding  roots,  and  a  sweet 
soil. 

Kinds  of  Fertilizers  and  Amounts  to  Apply.  —  Nitrogen  and 
phosphate  are  the  essential  ingredients  of  fertilizers  for  grass- 
lands.    Of  less  importance  generally  is  potash. 

The  need  for  nitrogen  in  the  soil  is  indicated  by  the  leaf  blades 
taking  on  a  yellow-green  cast.  Phosphate  is  often  required  on 
pasture  lands  and  in  soils  that  have  long  been  cultivated.  Lands 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  in  the  South,  and  in  the  middle  West 
are  often  quite  as  deficient  in  phosphate  as  in  nitrogen.  Pot- 
ash, on  the  other  hand,  is  abundant  in  most  soils;  but  because 
of  its  being  only  slightly  soluble  the  application  of  it  does  not 
always  appreciably  increase  the  yield. 

In  correcting  acidity  and  improving  the  tilth  of  the  soil, 
common  ground  limestone,  unburned,  is  used.  From  2  to  10 
or  more  tons  to  the  acre  is  applied.  In  Europe  basic  slag,  which 
is  rich  in  lime  and  phosphate,  is  popular.  Along  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  basic  slag  is  used  to  advantage,  but  for  the  interior 
States  its  use  is  impracticable  because  of  the  high  transportation 
charges. 

For  top-dressing,  a  fertilizer  must  be  readily  soluble,  or  it 


lOO  IMPROVEMENT  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM  PASTURES 

will  do  little  good.  Thus,  where  nitrogen  is  needed,  sodium 
nitrate  and  dried  blood  are  best;  for  phosphate,  treated  bone 
and  acid  phosphate  are  reUable;  and  for  potash  and  nitrogen, 
potassium  nitrate  is  recommended. 

It  is  best  to  determine  by  experiment  the  amount  of  ferti- 
lizer to  be  applied.  The  minimum  amount  of  sodium  nitrate 
and  acid  phosphate  to  use  is  lOO  pounds  and  75  pounds  per 
acre,  respectively.  The  minimum  amount  should  be  used  first, 
but  a  larger  amount  —  up  to  200  pounds  of  sodium  nitrate  and 
150  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  —  should  be  tried  out  on  a  small 
area  to  determine  if  such  application  is  a  paying  proposition. 

The  use  of  a  complete  fertilizer  is  generally  recommended. 
This  necessitates  the  use  of  potash  (muriate  of  potash)  in  addi- 
tion to  that  of  sodium  nitrate  and  acid  phosphate.  The  mini- 
mum application  of  muriate  of  potash  is  25  pounds,  and  the 
maximum  is  50  pounds. 

Fertilizers  should  be  applied  in  the  spring,  preferably  a  week 
or  two  after  growth  starts.  The  fertilizers  should  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  and  distributed  uniformly  over  the  land. 

The  top-dressing  of  pastures  with  stable  manures  pays  well 
—  often  better  than  on  any  other  land  on  the  farm.  Some 
contend  that  stock  do  not  crop  the  forage  with  relish  where 
manure  has  been  applied.  Often  the  opposite  effect  is  observed, 
as  the  grass  is  more  succulent  and  tender  on  the  manured  land. 
In  manuring  pastures  one  rule  should  not  be  overlooked:  Sheep 
manure  should  not  be  put  on  sheep  pasture,  for  it  may  contain 
stomach  worms  or  other  parasites  peculiarly  injurious  to  sheep. 

One  of  the  best  ways  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  pastures  is 
to  fatten  cattle  or  sheep  on  the  land,  feeding  the  concentrates 
as  well  as  the  hay  and  fodder  on  it.  Stock,  however,  should 
not  be  kept  on  the  pasture  when  the  soil  is  soft  and  wet,  as  it 
often  is  early  in  the  spring. 

The  Eternal  Battle  with  Weeds.  —  The  annual  growth  of 
weeds  on  pastures  in  the  United  States  is  enormous.  No  phase 
of  pasture  management  needs  more  serious  consideration  than 
does  that  of  weed  control.  Weeds  crowd  out  the  growing  pala- 
table crop  and  keep  its  development  in  check.     In  twelve  weeks 


THE  ETERNAL  BATTLE  WITH  WEEDS  101 

of  summer  weather  some  of  our  choicest  pasture  plants  give  off 
as  much  as  twenty  times  their  own  weight  in  water.  Many- 
weeds  are  equally  heavy  users  of  water  and  mineral  matter, 
both  so  essential  to  the  proper  development  of  the  grass  crop. 
A  strong  invasion  of  the  pasture  by  weeds  indicates  misman- 
agement of  the  paddock  in  some  particular.  As  a  rule  a  heavy 
weed  cover  indicates  a  depleted  soil  (Fig.  28). 


Fig.  28.  —  INVASION  OF  A  FARM  PASTURE  BY  UNPALATABLE  ASTERS,  RELIABLE 
INDICATOR  PLANTS  OF  A  DECLINING  FORAGE  YIELD. 


It  is  highly  important  to  mow  the  pasture  once,  or  better 
still,  two  or  three  times  during  the  summer,  before  the  weeds 
ripen  their  seeds.  The  work  should  be  done  thoroughly,  with 
the  use  of  a  mowing  machine.  The  mowing  machine  should  be 
set  to  run  moderately  high,  in  order  not  to  cut  too  much  of  the 
grass  feed.  In  some  pastures  this  will  necessitate  some  clean- 
ing up  and  clearing,  which  in  itself  makes  for  better  pasture. 
Mowing  prevents  the  weeds  from  spreading.  It  conserves  the 
moisture  and  mineral  matter  of  the  soil  for  the  grass  crop,  and 


I02   IMPROVEMENT  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF   FARM   PASTURES 

it  improves  the  grazing  by  rendering  the  crop  of  palatable  plants 
more  readily  available. 

Even  more  desirable  than  the  use  of  the  mower  is  mixed 
grazing,  as  it  affords  clean,  even  cropping  of  the  entire  pasture. 
It  is  a  good  practice  to  graze  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  in  the 
pasture  together.  Each  class  of  animals  has  its  choice  of  feed, 
the  result  being  that  few  weeds  remain,  and  the  whole  pasture 
is  utilized  evenly. 

Where  weeds  are  a  serious  pest  a  top-dressmg  of  a  suitable 
fertilizer  should  be  applied  to  the  pasture.  Winter  feeding  on 
the  poorer  spots  is  also  an  effective  means  of  improving  the 
grass  stand.  Where  the  grass  cover  is  thin  or  contains  denuded 
spots  it  should  be  seeded  to  the  plant  or  plants  known  to  be 
adapted  to  the  community.  It  is  well  to  disk  or  harrow  such 
areas  after  the  seed  is  scattered. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  (a)  How  are  pastures  generally  classified?  (b)  Distinguish  between  an 
annual  and  a  permanent  pasture. 

2.  Name  three  factors  that  determine  the  value  of  a  pasture. 

3.  Name  and  discuss  briefly  three  factors  that  cause  pastures  to  "run  out." 

4.  Why  is  it  unsafe  to  recommend  the  same  treatment  for  the  improvement 
and  maintenance  of  pastures  irrespective  of  their  geographic  situation? 

5.  Discuss  the  results  on  bluegrass  pastures  in  Virginia  with  respect  to 
(a)  disking,  (b)  disking  and  harrowing,  (c)  lack  of  cultural  treatment,  (d) 
alternate  versus  continuous  grazing,  and  (e)  hght  versus  heavy  grazing. 

6.  Why  do  not  bunchgrass  pastures  respond  satisfactorily  to  the  same 
grazing  practices  as  pastures  that  support  sod  vegetation? 

7.  How  would  you  determine  the  number  of  stock  that  a  pasture  may 
support  in  good  condition  throughout  the  grazing  season? 

8.  On  what  type  of  pasture  may  deferred  grazing  be  expected  to  give  good 
results? 

9.  Does  it  pay  to  apply  fertilizers  to  pasture  lands?  If  so,  what  kinds? 
What  amounts  should  be  applied? 

10.  Why  is  it  unsafe  to  put  sheep  manure  on  sheep  pasture? 

11.  (a)  How  may  the  weed  pest  be  controlled  in  pastures?  (b)  Under 
what  conditions  may  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  be  grazed  together  with  good 
results  to  both  stock  and  pasture? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


103 


Carrier,  Lyman,  and  Oakley,  R.  A.    The  Management  of  Bluegrass 

Pastures.     Va.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  204,  1914. 
Hitchcock,  A.  S.     Manual  of  Farm  Grasses.     Published  by  the  Author, 

Wash.,  D.  C,  1921. 
Hunt,  Thomas  F.     The  Cereals  in  America.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  N.  Y., 

1904. 
Kennedy,    P.   B.     Cooperative   Experiments   with   Grasses   and   Forage 

Plants.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Agrost.,  Bui.  22,  1900. 
Montgomery,  E.   G.     Productive  Farm  Crops.    J.  B.  Lippincott  Co., 

Phila.,  1915. 
RoBBiNS,  Wilfred  W.     The  Botany  of  Crop  Plants.     P.  Blakiston's  Son 

&  Co.,  Phila.,  1917. 
Sampson,  Arthur  W.     Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Management. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  791,  1919. 
Range  Improvement  by  Deferred  and  Rotation  Grazing.     U.  S.  Dept. 

of  Agr.  Bui.  34,  1913. 
The  Reseeding  of  Depleted  Grazing  Lands  to  Cultivated  Forage  Plants. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  4,  1913. 
Spillman,  William  J.     Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States.     Orange  Judd 

Co.,  N.  Y.,  1905. 


CHAPTER  VI 

RECOGNIZING  AND  CORRECTING  A  DECLINING 
FORAGE   YIELD 

Every  plant,  whether  one  of  forage  value,  a  noxious  weed,  or 
a  tree  in  the  deep  woods,  tells  the  story  of  the  conditions  under 
which  it  grows.  The  rate  and  luxuriance  of  its  growth  and  its 
ability  to  reproduce  are  a  measure  of  its  response  to  the  particular 
climate  and  soil,  and  indeed  to  such  factors  as  grazing,  competi- 
tion with  other  plants,  and  the  like,  peculiar  to  its  own  little 
world. 

The  excellent  results  obtained  on  native  western  range  lands 
through  the  use  of  the  deferred  and  rotation  grazing  system 
show  that  plants  need  time  for  growth  and  repair;  they  must 
be  given  a  fair  chance  if  they  are  expected  to  take  up  food  from 
the  soil  and  air  and  convert  it  into  forage.  The  serious  decline 
in  the  grazing  capacity  of  range  and  pasture  lands  practically 
everywhere  may  be  traced  almost  wholly  to  a  failure  to  recognize 
the  requirements  of  plant  growth. 

HOW  DESTRUCTIVE  GRAZING  MAY  BE  RECOGNIZED 
Old  or  Empirical  Method.  —  Destructive  grazing  can  not,  in 
fairness  to  the  stockman,  be  charged  entirely  to  his  methods  of 
pasturing.  True,  the  lowered  grazing  capacity  of  the  native 
pasture  lands  is  due  to  faulty  livestock  management,  but  in  the 
absence  of  scientific  studies  to  determine  the  effects  of  over- 
stocking the  disastrous  outcome  could  not  be  foretold.  Until 
recently  the  grazier  has  had  to  base  his  judgment  as  to  the  con- 
dition of  a  pasture  area  on  general  observations.  He  has  been 
guided  solely  by  observing  the  abundance  and  luxuriance  of  the 
plant  cover  as  a  whole,  and  the  condition  of  flesh  of  the  animals 
grazed. 

Any  slight  or  gradual  depletion  of  the  forage  crop  can  not  be 


NEW   OR   SCIENTIFIC   METHOD  105 

recognized  by  such  general  observations.  Until  the  carrying 
capacity  of  a  pasture  has  been  materially  reduced,  the  animals 
grazed  generally  come  through  the  season  in  fair  flesh.  Like- 
wise, until  the  plant  cover  as  a  whole  has  been  opened  up,  or  a 
large  proportion  of  the  more  palatable  plants  actually  killed, 
the  factors  responsible  for  the  injury  are  not  recognized.  After 
such  serious  depletion  many  seasons  of  skillful  management  are 
required  to  reestablish  the  original  forage  cover. 

New  or  Scientific  Method.  —  Because  of  the  serious  loss  to 
the  stockman  and  the  usual  injury  to  important  watersheds 
resulting  from  destructive  grazing,  a  finer  measure  than  merely 
observing  the  density  of  the  plant  cover  and  the  condition  of  the 
stock  pastured  must  govern  the  grazing  plans.  From  the  view- 
point of  proper  utilization,  the  margin  between  what  clearly 
constitutes  overgrazing  and  what  is  clearly  undergrazing  must 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  one  reliable,  indeed  the  only  direct,  scientific  way  of 
detecting  pasture  depletion  in  its  early  stages  is  by  observing 
the  succession  of  the  conspicuous  vegetation,  that  is,  the  replace- 
ment of  one  set  or  type  of  plants  by  another.^ 

Quite  different  plants  occupy  soils  in  the  various  stages  of 
formation  or  depletion.  Plant  hfe  began  on  the  earth  with 
very  simple  forms.  In  the  early  geological  ages,  largely  because 
of  the  absence  of  a  deep  layer  of  soil,  only  simple  plant  forms  or 
those  of  low  development  were  in  evidence.  These  forms, 
through  the  disintegration  of  the  once  consolidated  rock,  and 
the  gradual  accumulation  of  humus,  in  the  course  of  time  were 
supplanted  by  the  more  specialized  forms  of  plant  life.  This 
process  continued  until  the  highest  kinds  of  seed-bearing  plants 
came  to  predominate.  Generally  it  does  not  require  much 
misuse  of  grazing  lands  to  deplete  the  soil,  expose  the  underlying 
rock,  and  degrade  the  vegetation  to  such  an  extent  that  only  the 
lower  uneconomical  forms  of  plant  life  can  exist. 

If  the  highly  palatable  plants  on  pasture  lands  are  so  closely 
or  repeatedly  cropped  as  to  weaken  or  actually  kill  them,  they 

1  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Management." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  791,  pp.  1-7,  1919 


Io6    RECOGNIZING   AND   CORRECTING   DECLINING   FORAGE 

are  invariably  replaced  by  certain  temporary  or  short-lived 
species,  corresponding,  in  a  way,  to  the  primitive  plant  forms, 
most  of  which  are  low  or  negligible  in  palatability  and  nutritious- 
ness.  Accordingly,  the  incoming  species  are  reliable  indicators 
of  small  departures  in  the  grazing  capacity  of  the  pasture;  they 
tell  the  true  story  as  to  whether  the  pasture  is  improving,  de- 
clining, or  merely  "  holding  its  own  "  in  forage  production. 

The  rate  of  the  replacement  of  one  set  of  plants  by  another  is 
determined  essentially  by  the  soil  texture,  the  moisture  content 
of  the  soil,  and  the  compactness  of  the  soil.  If  the  soil  is  rich 
in  humus  so  that  it  may  absorb  and  retain  a  large  amount  of 
moisture  for  plant  growth,  the  lands  will  support  a  stable  per- 
ennial type  of  vegetation.  The  forage  yield  of  such  a  cover 
year  after  year  is  appreciably  larger  and  less  fluctuating  than  is 
that  of  annual  or  biennial  plants,  and  is  therefore  the  pasture 
type  most  desired. 

Conspicuous  Signs  of  Overgrazing.  —  Overgrazing  for  an  ex- 
tended period  will  invariably  leave  its  signs  of  one  kind  or  an- 
other.^ The  accumulated  damage  may  be  recognized  by  the 
following  conditions:  (i)  Erosion,  barrenness,  and  deeply  cut 
stock  trails  where  the  cover  was  formerly  intact.  (2)  Remnants 
of  dead  shoots  of  palatable  woody  plants,  such  as  birchleaf 
mahogany  (Cercocarpus),  willow  (Salix),  snowberry  {Sym- 
phoricarpos),  bitterbrush  {Purshia),  and  serviceberry  {Amel- 
anchier).  Where  such  shrub  growth  has  been  largely  destroyed, 
most  of  the  palatable  grasses  and  weeds  have  long  been  killed 
out.  (3)  Damage  to  tree  reproduction,  including  that  of  most 
coniferous  species,  as  well  as  that  of  broad-leaved  forms  like 
aspens.  (4)  An  increasing  abundance  of  unpalatable  or,  indeed, 
poisonous  plants,  such  as  certain  species  of  butterweed  {Senecio),'^ 
snakeweed  (Gutierrezia) ,  and  sneezeweed  (Helenium).  Areas 
upon  which  an  abundance  of  such  vegetation  grows  need  very 
careful  management  in  order  to  prevent  heavy  livestock  losses. 
(5)   The  predominance  of  annual   weeds  and  short-lived  un- 

'  Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark,  "Ran^e  Management  on  the  National 
Forests."    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  pp.  16-23,  1919. 
*  A  very  few  species  of  Senccio  are  highly  palatable  to  stock. 


TYPE   STAGES  OF   INDICATOR   PLANTS  107 

palatable  perennials.  The  conspicuous  presence  of  vegetation 
of  this  kind  indicates  severe  overgrazing.  It  occurs  character- 
istically on  badly  eroded  areas  and  on  long-used  sheep  trails  and 
bed  grounds.  The  indicators  of  overgrazing  here  enumerated 
are  found  on  lands  in  the  advanced  stages  of  depletion. 

Indicators  of  Slight  Departures  in  Grazing  Capacity.  —  A 
large  number  of  plants  that  occur  on  range  and  pasture  are 
valuable  as  indicators  of  the  early  or  moderate  stages  of  over- 
grazing. Two  sets  of  plants,  however,  namely,  those  that  are 
palatable  to  stock,  and  those  that  are  known  to  occupy  inferior 
soils,  are  the  most  reliable  indicators.  Overstocking  or  some 
other  form  of  overgrazing  is  indicated  whenever  the  highly 
palatable  species  are  so  closely  cropped  that  their  luxuriance  of 
growth  and  ability  to  reproduce  are  impaired.  The  inferior  plant 
forms,  or  those  that  characteristically  inhabit  eroded,  heavily 
packed,  or  otherwise  impaired  soils,  are  valuable  as  indicators  of 
moderate  overgrazing,  as  well  as  of  serious  depletion,  because 
they  invariably  appear  as  soon  as  the  original  cover  of  desirable 
plants  is  even  slightly  weakened  or  opened  up.  After  the  de- 
struction of  the  palatable  perennial  plants,  the  annual  or  short- 
lived perennial  weeds  of  the  lower  stage  make  their  appearance. 
They  reproduce  abundantly  and  make  good  growth  because  of 
the  larger  share  of  water  and  light  which  they  receive  in  the 
absence  of  the  former  cover. 

Type  Stages  of  Indicator  Plants.  —  A  careful  classification  of 
the  vegetation  up  and  down  the  scale  of  successional  develop- 
ment into  divisions  which  can  readily  be  recognized  justifies 
grouping  herbaceous  pasture  vegetation  into  four  stages.  In 
his  study  of  the  application  of  the  principles  of  plant  succession 
to  natural  range  reseeding  in  the  Wasatch  Mountains  in  central 
Utah,  the  author  classified  the  developmental  stages  as  follows:^ 
(i)  Climax  herbaceous  stage  (the  wheatgrass  cover);  (2)  mixed 
grass  and  weed   stage  (the  porcupinegrass-yellowbrush    cover); 

'  Sampson,  .^thur  W.,  "Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Management." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  ygi,  p.  7,  1919.  The  principles  developed  in  the  inves- 
tigations reported  in  this  bulletin,  covering  about  thirteen  years  of  study  in  the 
West,  are  applicable  to  pasture  lands  generally,  and  hence  are  briefly  reviewed 
here. 


Io8    RECOGNIZING  AND   CORRECTING   DECLINING    FORAGE 

(3)  second  or  late  weed  stage  (the  foxglove-yarrow-sweet  sage 
cover);  (4)  first  or  early  weed  stage  (the  annual  weed  cover). 
Although  the  species  concerned  in  this  investigation  are  not 
the  same  everywhere/  the  character  of  growth  and  the  habitat 
requirements  of  the  plants  of  the  different  stages  are  the  same 
on  native  pasture  lands  generally. 

CLIMAX   HERBACEOUS   STAGE 

The  wheatgrasses  (Agropyron)  in  the  Wasatch  Mountains, 
and  generally  over  their  natural  range,  constitute  the  climax 
or  highest  herbaceous  cover.  Both  the  "  bunch  "  wheatgrasses 
and  the  turf-forming  kinds  are  characteristic,  but  generally  the 
bunchgrass  forms  distinctly  predominate  (Fig.  29).  Usually 
between  the  tufts  grows  a  considerable  admixture  of  vegetation. 
The  turf-forming  wheatgrasses,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  make 
so  dense  a  stand  in  their  unhampered  development  as  practically 
to  exclude  other  plants. 

Destruction  of  the  Wheatgrass  Cover.  —  The  opening  up,  by 
destructive  grazing  or  otherwise,  of  a  well-estabHshed  stand  of 
wheatgrass  immediately  stimulates  the  invasion  and  establish- 
ment of  both  deep-rooted  and  shallow-rooted  plants.  Where 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  not  appreciably  impaired  as  a  result  of 
the  depletion  of  the  wheatgrass  cover,  yellowbrush  {Chryso- 
thamnus  lanceolatus)  and  small  porcupinegrass  {Slipa  minor) 
are  among  the  first  to  gain  a  foothold.  Where  the  tufted  or 
"  carpet  "  form  of  wheatgrass  is  permitted  to  revegetate,  this 
cover  again  completely  reoccupies  the  area,  thus  entirely  re- 
placing the  yellowbrush  and  porcupinegrass.  As  shown  in 
Figure  30,  this  destruction  of  the  more  temporary  invaders  is 
due  to  the  network  of  superficial  wheatgrass  roots.  So  com- 
pletely do  these  roots  occupy  the  soil  that  practically  all  of  the 
available  soil  water  is  absorbed,  and  the  soil  below,  with  the 
deeper  roots  of  the  invading  plants,  like  yellowbrush,  is  left  in  a 
state  of  dryness.  Thus  any  vegetation  whose  main  moisture- 
absorbing  roots  extend  well  below   those  of  the   turf- forming 

^  Clements,  F.  E.,  "Plant  Indicators."  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington, 
Publication  290,  pp.  270-335,  1920. 


Fig.  20.  — relative  HEIGHT  GROWTH  AND  CHARACTER  OF  ROOT  SYSTEM  OF 
TYPICAL  WHEATGRASSES  OF  THE  BUNCHED  AND  OF  THE  TURFED  HABIT 
OF  GROWTH. 

B,  blue  bunch  wheatgrass  (Aaropyron  spicalum);    S,  small  wheatgrass  {Agropyron  dasyslachyum). 

109 


no    RECOGNIZING  AND   CORRECTING  DECLINING  FORAGE 


Fig.  30.  — PORCUPINEGRASS   AND   YELLOWBRUSH  ARE  THE   DOMINANT  SPECIES 
OF   THE   MIXED    GRASS    AND    WEED    STAGE. 

They  are  the  first  plants  to  increase  in  abundance  where  the  whcatgrass  cover  is  declining  slightly. 


MIXED   GRASS   AND   WEED   STAGE  iii 

wheatgrass,  is  soon  killed  out.  On  the  bunch  wheatgrass  lands 
the  invading  yellowbrush  and  porcupinegrass  are  relatively 
persistent. 

Forage  Production.  —  The  wheatgrass  cover  produces  a  large 
amount  of  forage  which  is  especially  well  suited  to  the  grazing 
of  cattle  and  horses.  Sheep  and  goats,  however,  make  better 
returns  on  a  mixed  grass  and  broad-leaved  herb  cover,  preferably 
where  broadleaves  predominate,  than  on  a  pure  grass  type.  This 
statement,  however,  should  not  be  interpreted  to  imply  that  on  a 
highly  developed  grass  cover  overgrazing  by  sheep  or  goats  is 
justified  in  order  to  increase  the  stand  of  broad-leaved  plants. 
Such  destructive  cropping  will  seriously  decrease  the  forage  pro- 
duction of  the  land  for  the  grazing  of  cattle  and  horses.  After 
a  few  years  of  full  utilization  of  the  wheatgrass  cover  by  cattle 
and  horses,  a  considerable  variety  of  plants  usually  appears, 
thereby  increasing  the  value  of  the  type  for  the  grazing  of  sheep 
and  goats. 

MIXED   GRASS  AND   WEED   STAGE 

This  vegetative  stage,  next  to  the  wheatgrass  type,  con- 
stitutes the  highest  and  most  stable  cover.  As  indicated,  where 
the  wheatgrass  cover  is  destroyed  gradually,  but  where  the  fer- 
tihty  of  the  soil  and  its  plant  water  content  are  not  greatly 
decreased,  porcupinegrass  and  yellowbrush  (Fig.  31)  soon  gain 
dominion  of  the  area,  and  hence  signify  the  waning  of  the  wheat- 
grass  cover.  As  a  great  variety  of  both  deep-rooted  and  shal- 
low-rooted plants  makes  up  the  vegetation  of  the  porcupine- 
grass-yellowbrush  type,  it  is  popularly  referred  to  as  the  "  mixed 
grass  and  weed  "  stage.  The  highest  development  of  this  type 
is  indicated  by  at  least  a  scattered  stand  of  wheatgrasses.  A 
well-established  porcupinegrass-yellowbrush  cover  usually  also 
supports  a  goodly  sprinkling  of  bluegrasses  {Poa)  and  some 
fescuegrasses  (Festuca).  The  gradual  depletion  of  this  vege- 
tational  stage  is  usually  indicated  by  the  invasion  and  establish- 
ment of  bromegrasses  (Bromus),  not  uncommonly  by  an  in- 
creasing abundance  of  fescuegrasses,  and  several  species  of  per- 
ennial broad-leaved  herbs.     Among  these,  foxgloves,  notably 


112    RECOGNIZING  AND   CORRECTING   DECLINING  FORAGE 


-2'4i 


Fig.  31.  —  SMALL   WHEATGRASS   IN    COMPETITION   WITH   YELLOWBRUSH. 

I,  yellowbrush  growing  luxuriantly  in  the  open;  2,  transverse  view  of  formerly  overgrazed  area  of 
small  wheatgrass  where,  following  controlled  grazing,  the  yellowbrush  cover  is  being  killed  out 
by  the  revegetation  of  the  original  wheatgrass  stand. 


SECOND  OR  LATE  WEED   STAGE  113 

turf-forming  species  like  blue  foxglove  {Pentstemon  procerus)^ 
yarrow  {Achillea  lanulosa),  and  sweet  sage  {Artemisia  discolor) 
predominate. 

Destruction  of  the  Porcupinegrass-Yellowbrush  Cover.  —  So 
long  as  the  porcupinegrass-yellowbrush  cover  retains  its  density 
of  stand,  or,  better  still,  if  it  is  being  replaced  by  the  wheat- 
grasses,  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  the  lands  are  not  being  misused. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  type  is  being  supplanted  by  brome- 
grass,  or,  more  seriously  still,  by  foxglove,  sweet  sage,  and  yarrow, 
or  other  plants  of  the  second  weed  stage,  there  is  indisputable 
evidence  of  the  depletion  of  the  area.  In  a  short  time  the  waning 
forage  crop  at  this  stage  of  depletion  will  be  reflected  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  stock  grazed  and  in  the  increased  erosion  of  the  soil. 

Forage  Production.  —  Because  of  the  large  variety  of  palatable 
plants  that  are  associated  with  the  porcupinegrass-yellowbrush 
cover,  this  type  in  its  highest  stage  of  development  is  probably 
the  most  desirable,  all  classes  of  stock  considered.  Since  the 
forage  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  grasses  and  weeds,  with  the 
former  distinctly  predominating,  the  highest  grazing  efficiency  is 
usually  obtained  through  "  common  use,"  that  is,  the  combined 
grazing  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep. 

SECOND;  OR  LATE  WEED   STAGE 

Where  unfavorable  conditions  for  the  growth  of  the  porcupine- 
grass-yellowbrush cover  have  not  been  such  as  materially  to 
lower  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  shallow-rooted  but  often  turf- 
forming  perennial  weeds  of  the  early  second  weed  stage  are  the 
natural  successors.  The  most  conspicuous  and  characteristic  of 
these  are  blue  foxglove,  yarrow,  and  sweet  sage  (Fig.  32),  On  the 
other  hand,  where  the  porcupinegrass-yellowbrush  cover  is 
suddenly  destroyed  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  upper  dark 
soil  is  carried  away,  the  vegetation  consists  chiefly  of  annual 
plants  characteristic  of  the  first  or  early  weed  stage. 

A  somewhat  large  number  of  species  are  associated  with  the 
foxglove-yarrow-sweet  sage  type,  but  they  are  usually  second- 
ary in  abundance.     They  are  mostly  short-Hved,  broad-leaved 


114    RECOGNIZING  AND   CORRECTING   DECLINING   FORAGE 

perennial  herbs.     Many  of  these  are  entirely  dependent  upon 
seed  for  their  reproduction. 


(Forest  Service,  under  direction  oj  tlie  Author.) 

Fig.  32. —  dominant  PLANTS  OF  THE  SECOND  OR  LATE  WEED  STAGE,  SHOWING 

HABIT  OF   GROWTH. 

From  left  to  right,  blue  foxglove  [Penlslemon  procerus),  yarrow  {Achillea  lanulosa),  and  sweet  sage 

(Artemisia  discolor).     Yarrow  is  the  only  one  of  the  trio  of  any  appreciable  value  as  forage. 


Destruction   of   the   Foxglove-Sweet   Sage-Yarrow   Cover.  — 

Low  peavine  {Lathyrus  leucanthus) ,  evening  primrose  (Lavauxia 
flava),  false  cymopterus  {Pseudocymopterus  Tideslromii) ,  Mexi- 
can dock  {Rimiex  Mexicanus),  and  tongue-leaved  violet  {Viola 
linguaefolia)  are  the  most  reliable  and  characteristic  indicators 
of  the  gradual  destruction  of  the  more  palatable  second  weed 
stage  cover.  With  the  continued  operation  of  the  destructive 
factors,  these  relatively  short-hved  perennials  are  soon  replaced 
by  annual  plants. 


FIRST   OR   EARLY   WEED    STAGE  II5 

Forage  Production.  —  Considerably  less  forage,  generally  of 
an  inferior  type,  is  produced  on  lands  in  the  late  weed  stage  than 
on  the  wheatgrass  or  the  porcupinegrass-yellowbrush  covers. 
This  is  due  chiefly  to  the  large  number  of  true  (unpalatable) 
pasture  weeds,  the  presence  of  poisonous  plants,  and  the  small 
amount  of  grass  forage.  Because  sheep  graze  broad-leaved 
herbs  more  eagerly  than  do  cattle  and  horses,  the  foxglove-yarrow- 
sweet  sage  type  is  most  economically  utilized  by  the  grazing  of 
sheep  alone.^  The  gains  sheep  make  on  this  type,  however,  are 
distinctly  less  than  the  gains  produced  on  either  of  the  higher 
types  discussed.  Cattle  and  horses  do  poorly  on  this  weed  type, 
and  as  a  rule  fail  to  maintain  their  weight. 

FIRST  OR  EARLY  WEED   STAGE 

Soils  that  contain  little  humus,  or  have  been  subject  to  heavy 
leaching,  or  are  firmly  packed,  support  virtually  the  same  tj^e 
of  vegetation  as  badly  eroded  areas.  The  cover  consists  largely 
of  nonpalatable  annual  weeds.  This  type  is  in  evidence  until 
enough  organic  matter  has  accumulated  in  the  soil  to  favor  the 
establishment  of  the  second  or  late  weed  stage.  Some  of  the 
more  characteristic  plants  of  the  first  weed  stage  are  lamb's- 
quarters  {Cheno podium  alhum) ,  slender-leaved  collomia  (Collomia 
linearis),  tansy  mustard  (Sophia  incisa),  Douglas  knotweed 
(Polygonum  Douglasii),  and  Tolmie's  orthocarpus  (Orthocarpus 
Tolmiei)  (Fig.  t,^).  These  plants  complete  their  cycle  of  growth 
in  about  six  weeks  after  the  sprouting  of  the  seed.  The  seed  is 
then  disseminated  and  the  cover  dries  up  and  disappears.  The 
seed  habits  are  invariably  strong. 

Forage  Production.  —  Only  a  small  amount  of  forage,  and  that 
of  an  inferior  quality,  is  produced  by  plants  of  the  first  weed  type. 
Although  a  considerable  number  of  species  are  grazed  in  a 
limited  way  by  sheep  and  goats,  very  few  being  palatable  to 
cattle  and  horses,  the  type  as  a  whole  is  well-nigh  negligible  as 
forage.  Furthermore,  this  type  must  be  grazed  early  in  the 
season  when  the  plants  are  young  and  succulent,  for  it  is  not 

1  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Bringing  Back  Overgrazed  Range."  Nat'l  Wool 
Grower,  Vol.  10,  No.  4,  pp.  11,  12,  April,  1920. 


Il6    RECOGNIZING  AND   CORRECTING   DECLINING   FORAGE 


8     ^ 

•I     ^ 
g     00 

II 


EFFECT  OF   GRAZING  Il7 

really  relished  even  by  sheep.  Because  of  the  attending  difiS- 
culty  of  utilizing  it  early  enough,  much  of  the  forage,  poor  though 
it  be,  is  lost  each  year.  Then,  too,  on  account  of  the  restricted 
taproots  of  the  conspicuous  vegetation  and  the  heavy  erosion  to 
which  the  lands  are  subjected  in  the  absence  of  an  abundance  of 
soil-binding  roots,  it  is  essential  that  stock  grazing  upon  this  type 
be  handled  in  a  most  careful  manner.  If  serious  erosion  is  to 
be  prevented,  the  lands  should  be  cropped  very  little,  or  better 
still,  not  at  all,  until  a  good  scattering  of  the  second  weed  stage 
vegetation  has  gained  dominion  over  the  soil. 

EFFECT  OF  GRAZING  ON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
VEGETATION 

The  statements  as  to  the  depletion  of  the  different  plant 
stages  make  clear  the  fact  that  grazing  may  either  retard  or 
promote  the  development  of  the  plant  cover  and  cause  what 
plant  ecologists  term  vegetative  degeneration  or  progression. 
The  highest  grazing  efficiency  consists  in  taking  the  largest 
amount  of  forage  from  a  pasture  year  after  year.  Therefore 
any  system  of  pasture  management  which  is  responsible  for 
a  decline  in  the  forage  crop  from  season  to  season  is  destructive. 
If  such  a  practice  is  persisted  in,  the  ground  cover  is  soon  de- 
stroyed, and  this  condition  sooner  or  later  is  followed  by  erosion 
in  one  form  or  another. 

A  typical  case  depicting  the  effects  of  range  depletion  and 
erosion  is  shown  in  Figure  34.  It  will  be  noted  that  where  the 
original  cover  remains  intact  (section  B,  to  the  extreme  left  in 
the  figure)  the  vegetation  is  of  a  desirable  forage  type  and  no 
erosion  has  occured.  Moderate  destruction  of  the  vegetation 
(to  the  extreme  right  of  section  B)  has  brought  forth  a  somewhat 
inferior  type  of  plant  Hfe,  and  the  soil  is  subject  to  at  least  moder- 
ate erosion.  In  contrast  to  these  conditions,  serious  destruction 
of  the  cover  (section  A)  is  associated  with  heavy  washing  of  the 
soil.  The  vegetation  on  the  moderately  depleted  areas  (to  the 
extreme  right  of  section  B)  consists  chiefly  of  plants  of  the 
second  weed  stage,  but  on  the  badly  eroded  parts  (section  A), 
the  cover  is  composed  either  of  plants  of  the  first  weed  stage  or  of 


Il8    RECOGNIZING   AND    CORRF.CTING    DECUNTNG   FORAGE 


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VEGETATION  ON  DRIVEWAYS  AND   BED   GROUNDS       1 19 

shallow-rooted,  short-lived  perennials.  As  would  be  expected, 
the  vegetation  as  a  whole  is  most  inferior  and  sparsest  on  the 
seriously  eroded  parts;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  highest  succes- 
sionally  and  the  most  desirable  and  abundant  on  the  noneroded 
portion. 

Vegetation  on  Driveways  and  Bed  Grounds.  —  The  use  for 
many  seasons  in  succession  of  estabhshed  driveways  and  bed 
grounds  brings  about  a  type  of  vegetation  similar  to  that  found 
on  badly  eroded  areas  —  plants  that  are  embraced  chiefly  in  the 
first  weed  stage.  Not  uncommonly  such  areas  represent  the 
most  serious  destruction  of  the  plant  cover  that  can  occur  on 
pasture  lands.  On  long-used  bed  grounds,  for  instance,  all  of 
the  stages  of  vegetation  described  are  frequently  found  in  belts 
around  the  bed  ground  proper.  Figure  35  shows  a  bed  ground 
that  was  used  for  many  seasons  in  succession.  The  bed  ground 
proper  (zone  i)  is  practically  circular  and  covers  22  acres.  Be- 
cause of  heavy  and  repeated  use  each  year  not  a  vestige  of  vegeta- 
tion remains.  On  the  basis  of  the  density  and  palatability  of  the 
original  cover  this  area  would  have  supported  in  good  condition 
14  sheep,  or  3I  mature  cows,  for  the  summer  season  of  100  days. 

Surrounding  the  bed  ground  proper  is  an  area  (zone  2) 
of  about  85  acres.  Here  the  vegetation  consists  entirely  of 
plants  of  the  first  or  early  weed  stage.  On  the  basis  of  the  density 
and  palatability  of  the  original  cover,  this  area  would  have  main- 
tained in  good  condition  for  the  summer  season  65  sheep,  or  16 
cows;  whereas  it  now  supports  5  sheep,  or  i|  cows. 

Zone  3  comprises  about  215  acres  and  has  a  mixed  cover  of 
plants  of  the  first  and  early  second  weed  stages.  If  it  is  assumed 
that  half  of  the  present  vegetation  is  palatable  to  stock,  it  may 
now  carry  16  sheep,  or  4  cows;  whereas  it  would  formerly  have 
furnished  feed  during  the  regular  grazing  season  for  130  sheep, 
or  about  32  mature  cows. 

Zone  4  has  a  mixed  cover  of  perennial  grasses  and  weeds  and 
comprises  an  area  of  approximately  350  acres.  About  three- 
fourths  of  the  cover  is  palatable.  It  will  now  carry  105  sheep, 
or  26  cows;  whereas  formerly  it  would  have  supported  not  less 
than  210  sheep,  or  52  cows. 


I20    RECOGNIZING   AND   CORRECTING   DECLINING  FORAGE 


In  generalizing,  the  data  shows  that,  if  the  bedding-out  system 
had  been  used  instead  of  the  established-camp  method  of  hand- 
ling the  band,  no  less  than  280  sheep,  or  at  least  70  cows,  could 
now  be  pastured  on  this  area  during  the  summer. 


{Forest  Service,  under  direction  of  the  AulJtor.) 
Fig.  35-  —  BED  GROUND  USED  FOR  SEVERAL  SUCCESSIVE  YEARS,  SHOWING  ZONES 
OF  VEGETATION  AND  RANGE  OF  DEPLETION. 

If  permanent  bed  grounds  are  used,  it  is  evident  that  the  carry- 
ing capacity  of  the  lands  is  invariably  reduced  far  below  normal. 
Furthermore,  the  loss  of  lambs  from  poisonous  plants  is  appre- 
ciably heavier  if  regular  bed  grounds  are  used. 

Revegetation  of  Bed  Grounds.  —  Many  stockmen  and  others 
contend  that  bed  grounds  will  reseed  rapidly  because  of  the 
large  accumulation  of  organic  matter.     However,  some  sample 


REVEGETATION   OF   BED    GROUNDS 


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122    RECOGNIZING  AND   CORRECTING  DECLINING  FORAGE 


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REVEGETATION  OF   BED    GROUNDS 


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124    RECOGNIZING  AND   CORRECTING  DECLINING  FORAGE 

plots  of  bed  grounds  that  have  been  fenced  against  stock  for 
many  years  have  revegetated  very  slowly  indeed.  For  several 
years  after  total  protection  against  stock,  only  the  vegetation  of 
the  early  successional  stages  is  in  evidence  (Fig.  36).  Such 
species  as  Douglas  knotweed,  lamb's-quarters,  tansy  mustard, 
and  Mexican  dock  are  often  conspicuous.  Furthermore,  the 
height  growth  of  the  different  species,  as  well  as  the  depth  and 
spread  of  their  root  systems,  is  appreciably  less  than  on  areas 
whose  soil  has  not  been  heavily  packed. 

The  slow  reseeding  is  due  largely  to  the  heavy  packing  of  the 
soil,  for  whenever  a  bed  ground  is  plowed  the  original  cover  is 
soon  replaced.  So  heavily  packed  is  the  surface  soil  on  long- 
used  bed  grounds  that  it  takes  the  form  of  a  series  of  laminated 
"  crusts."^  Therefore,  either  most  of  the  seed  that  falls  on  such 
areas  fails  to  germinate,  or  the  seedlings  die  soon  after  the  food 
stored  in  the  seeds  is  exhausted. 

Revegetation  of  Lands  Grazed  Each  Year  before  Seed  Ma- 
turity as  Compared  with  that  of  Yearlong  Protected  Areas.  —  It 
has  been  pointed  out  that  in  the  somewhat  advanced  stages  of 
destructive  grazing  the  highly  palatable  plants  are  the  first  to 
weaken  and  fail  to  reproduce.  This  failure  to  reproduce  is  invari- 
ably associated  with  a  sharp  decline  in  forage  yield;  neverthe- 
less the  buds  at  the  plant's  crown,  though  they  remain  dormant, 
may  survive  for  a  considerable  period. 

Where  a  considerable  portion  of  the  vegetation  is  alive,  though 
low  in  vigor,  yearlong  protection  or,  indeed,  grazing  after  seed 
maturity  soon  rejuvenates  the  cover  and  greatly  stimulates 
growth  and  reproduction.  The  following  table  and  Figures 
37A  and  37B  summarize  the  effect  of  yearlong  protection  and 
of  grazing  each  season  before  seed  maturity.  The  unprotected 
portion  shown  in  Figure  37A  was  grazed  moderately  by  sheep 
and  cattle  each  year  prior  to  and  while  the  study  was  in  progress 
and  corresponds  to  the  grazing  practice  to  which  the  protected 
portion  of  the  area  was  subject  before  the  initiation  of  the  experi- 
ment.    When  the  protected  area  was  fenced,  the  vegetation  was 

1  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Herding  Hints  from  the  Changing  Range."  Nat'l 
Wool  Grower,  Vol.  10,  No.  5,  pp.  20,  21,  May,  1920. 


REVEGETATION  OF  LANDS 


practically  identical  in  character,  vigor,  and  density  with  that 
on  the  adjacent  outside  portion. 

Comparative  Density  and  Height  of  Vegetation  on  a  Plot  Protected 
FROM  Grazing  for  Five  Successive  Years  and  on  an  Unprotected 
Adjacent  Sheep  and  Cattle  Range  Gr.4zed  Annually,  Usually 
Well   Before   Seed  Maturity  ^ 


Density  per  square  foot 

Relative  height 
(Physiological  index) 

Plant 

On  pro- 
tected plot 

On  open 
range 

Percentage 

of  difTer- 

ence 

On  pro- 
tected plot 

On  open 
range 

Percentage 

of  difTer- 

ence 

Yarrow 

Slender  wheat- 
grass 

Androsace 

Sweet  sage  .... 

Aster 

Tall  larkspur... 

Low  peavine. .  . 

Evening  prim- 
rose   

Douglas  knot- 
weed 

Plantain 

Tansy  mustard 

Small  moun- 
tain porcu- 
pinegrass    . .  . 

Dandelion 

Meadow  rue .  .  . 

Spiked  tri- 
setum 

Tongue-leaved 
violet 

45.6 
1.6 

3-2 

"  ",8 
4.8 

12.0 
7.2 
4.0 

2-4 

4.0 

28  .  2 

1-4 

•7 

1-4 
2  .1 

5.6 

12.7 
1-4 

4-9 

4.2 

3-5 

.8 

2.8 

1.4 

38 

12 

IOC 
63 

75" 
34 

75" 

20 

65 
51 
80 

i7« 

65 

1-47 

3.06 

I  .20 
1.90 
5.20 
I  .  70 

'2 '.82 

2.56 
2.92 
1-95 

0.85 
I  .20 

1.03 
4.40 
I  .20 

I  .20 
2.13 

1. 18 

2.92 

.96 

42 
61 

"46" 
IS 
29 

24 

54 
0 
SI 

°  Indicates  more  individuals  per  square  foot 
portion. 


the  unprotected  area  than  on  the  protected 


The  highly  palatable  perennial  plants  are  appreciably  more 
abundant  on  the  protected  area  than  on  the  unprotected  plot. 
Sweet  sage,  for  instance,  shows  a  difference  of  100  per  cent  in 
favor  of  protection;  small  mountain  porcupinegrass,  65  per  cent; 

^  The  figures  here  given  were  compiled  from  a  bisect  16  feet  long  and  i  inch 
wide  inside  and  outside  of  the  protection  plot.  Owing  to  the  unwieldiness  of  a 
sketch  of  such  proportions,  only  a  part  of  its  length  is  shown  in  Figures  37A  and 
37B. 


126    RECOGNIZING  AND  CORRECTING  DECLINING  FORAGE 

dandelion,  51  per  cent;  yarrow,  38  per  cent;  and  slender  wheat- 
grass,  12  per  cent.  However,  the  greatest  density  in  four  species 
occurs  on  the  unprotected  area.  The  species  concerned  are 
somewhat  unpalatable  perennials  or  annuals,  such  as  usually 
colonize  readily  on  more  or  less  packed  soils. 

Further  interesting  contrasts  may  be  observed  if  the  average 
height  growth  of  the  different  species  on  the  fenced  and  the  un- 
fen-ced  areas  may  be  used  as  an  index  of  their  physiological  vigor 
or  strength.  For  instance,  the  relative  height  growth  of  the 
different  species  is  strikingly  in  favor  of  the  protected  area,  the 
percentage  being  greater  in  all  but  one  instance.  The  exception 
is  m-eadow  rue  (Thalictrum),  a  plant  which  is  practically  un- 
touched by  any  class  of  stock.  Being  unmolested  by  grazing 
animals,  the  plant  is  quite  as  strong  physiologically  on  the  un- 
protected area  as  on  the  protected  plot.  In  general  the  differ- 
ence in  the  height  growth  is  roughly  in  proportion  to  the  palata- 
bility  of  the  different  species.  Moreover,  the  amount  of  seed 
produced,  its  germination  strength,  and  the  height  growth  of 
the  vegetation  are  closely  correlated.  Regardless  of  whether 
the  vegetation  is  permitted  to  regain  its  vigor  by  the  entire  ex- 
clusion of  stock  as  a  result  of  deferred  grazing,  complete  physio- 
logical recovery  results  in  about  three  years.  Likewise,  the  de- 
cline in  the  forage  yield  and  seed  production  of  bunchgrass 
areas,  practically  to  the  zero  point,  is  accompHshed  in  approxi- 
mately three  years  of  abusive  grazing. 

Possibly  the  most  significant  fact  brought  out  in  the  experi- 
ment is  the  difference  in  the  density  of  the  various  species  on  the 
protected  and  on  the  grazed  area.  On  yearlong  protected  areas 
the  plants  with  running  rootstocks,  like  yarrow,  low  peavine, 
and  sweet  sage,  increase  at  a  rapid  rate  by  sprouts  as  soon  as 
sufficient  food  is  elaborated  to  stimulate  the  buds  to  growth. 
Reproduction  from  seed,  especially  by  plants  of  the  large-seeded 
species,  like  the  bromegrasses  and  fescues,  for  instance,  is  strik- 
ingly more  vigorous  on  areas  where  the  grazing  is  deferred  until 
the  seed  crop  has  ripened.  For  good  reproduction  of  plants 
whose  seeds  are  fairly  large,  deferred  grazing,  with  the  conse- 
quent planting  of  the  seed  crop  by  the  trampHng  of  stock,  is  a 


HOW  TO   RECOGNIZE  IMPROVEMENT  OR  DEPLETION     1 27 

distinct  advantage  over  yearlong  protection.  Accordingly,  de- 
ferred grazing  has  all  of  the  advantages  of  total  protection  and 
none  of  the  disadvantages,  such  as  Hmited  reproduction  from 
seed  and  waste  of  forage  during  the  period  required  for  revegeta- 
tion. 

USE  OF  INDICATOR  PLANTS 

The  species  that  are  increasing  on  a  pasture  area,  regardless 
of  whether  they  are  mere  weeds  or  palatable  forage  plants,  reveal 
one  of  two  facts.  If  the  invading  plants  are  lower  in  the  suc- 
cession than  the  original  or  the  predominating  vegetation,  the 
area  is  being  misused  in  one  or  more  respects.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  incoming  vegetation  is  somewhat  higher  successionally 
than  the  type  as  a  whole,  the  plan  of  grazing  is  satisfactory.  If 
undesirable  plants  are  crowding  out  the  more  permanent  and 
palatable  ones,  remedial  measures  should  be  adopted  with 
dispatch. 

If  the  native  pasture  is  not  cropped  too  early  in  the  season, 
and  if  its  grazing  capacity  is  correctly  estimated,  the  deferred 
and  rotation  grazing  system  may  be  depended  upon  to  reestab- 
lish the  stand,  provided  enough  of  the  original  desirable  plants 
remain  for  seed  production.  Lands  that  have  been  so  seriously 
depleted,  however,  that  only  first  weed  stage  vegetation  remains, 
can  not  be  revegetated  satisfactorily  by  deferred  grazing,  for 
such  areas  can  not  be  grazed  without  further  serious  depletion. 
Lands  in  the  first  weed  stage  had  best  be  entirely  closed  to  stock 
until  the  cover  is  well  advanced  into  the  second  weed  stage. 

How  to  Recognize  Pasture  Improvement  or  Depletion.  —  Al- 
though the  primary  pasture  indicators  will  serve  to  determine 
whether  a  range  is  being  properly  handled,  it  is  necessary  to 
adopt  some  definite  means  of  noting  the  changes  that  are  taking 
place  in  the  plant  cover.  For  this  purpose,  plots  representing 
the  area  as  a  whole  should  be  selected.  For  accurate  work  it  is 
necessary  to  make  a  rough  map  of  the  vegetation  growing  on  the 
selected  areas,  but  in  practice  a  properly  recorded  accurate  esti- 
mate of  the  density  and  character  of  the  vegetation  will  suffice. 
The  area  should  be  so  located  and  so  carefully  staked  and  labeled 


128   RECOGNIZING  AND   CORRECTING  DECLINING  FOR.\GE 

that  it  may  be  reexamined  at  any  time.  The  comparative 
density  of  the  chief  indicator  species  —  both  the  palatable  and 
the  unpalatable  ones  —  sh'ould  be  noted.  The  value  of  this  work 
is  greatly  enhanced  by  collecting  and  preserving  for  future  refer- 
ence the  main  indicator  and  forage  species  found  on  the  plot. 
Photographs  showing  the  density  and  character  of  vegetation 
are  also  highly  valuable. 

Reliable  Indicator  Plants.  —  Plants  as  indicators  of  forage 
conditions  obviously  are  not  the  same  everywhere.  As  a  rule, 
however,  the  same  genera  will  be  represented,  but  the  species 
may  be  different.  Reliable  indicators  of  the  various  stages  of 
overgrazing  in  any  region  may  be  determined  by  observing  the 
plants  that  predominate  on  and  about  bed  grounds,  on  livestock 
trails,  and  on  areas  in  various  stages  of  depletion.  The  follow- 
ing list  of  plants  characteristic  of  the  four  successional  stages, 
as  developed  by  the  writer  in  the  investigation  here  summarized, 
will  serve  more  or  less  perfectly  as  a  check  list  of  indicator  plants 
elsewhere.  The  list  is  arranged  according  to  the  natural  grass 
or  weed  stages,  and  the  lowest  or  more  temporary  ones  are  given 
first,  for  it  is  these  especially  that  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  judging 
the  condition  of  a  pasture. 

First  or  early  weed  stage: 
Most  characteristic  species  — 

Douglas  knotweed  {Polygonum  Douglasii). 

Goosefoot,  or  lamb's-quarters  {Chenopodium  album). 

Slender-leaved  coUomia  {Collomia  linearis). 

Tansy  mustard  {Sophia  incisa). 

Tarweed  {Madia  glomerata) . 

Tolmie's  orthocarpus  {Orthocarpus  Tolmiei). 

Other  species  of  the  first  weed  stage  — 
Androsace  {Androsace  diffusa). 
Gilia  {Microsteris  micrantha). 
Knotweed  {Polygonum  aviculare). 
Monolepis  {Monolepis  Nuttalliana). 
Peppergrass  {Lepidium  ramosissimum). 


RELIABLE   INDICATOR   PLANTS  1 29 

Second  or  late  weed  stage: 

Most  characteristic  species  — 

Blue  foxglove  {Pentstemon  procerus). 

Sweet  sage  {Artemisia  discolor). 

Yarrow  {Achillea  lanulosa). 
Other  species  of  the  second  weed  stage  — 

Aster  {A  ster  frondeus) . 

Butterweed  {Senecio  Columhianus). 

Cinquefoil  {Potentilla  Jilipes) . 

Evening  primrose  {Lavauxia  flava) . 

False  cymopterus  {Pseudocymopterus  Tidestromii) . 

False  Solomon 's-seal  {Vagnera  stellata). 

Geranium  {Geranium  viscosissimum) . 

Horsemint  {Agastache  urticifolia) . 

Large  mountain  bromegrass  {Bromus  marginatus). 

Low  larkspur  {Delphinium  Menziesii). 

Low  pea  vine  {Lathyrus  leucanthus). 

Mexican  dock  {Rumex  Mexicanus). 

Mountain  dandelion  {Crepis  acuminata). 

Oniongrass  {Melica  hulbosa). 

Porter's  bromegrass  {Bromus  Porteri). 

Rubberweed  ( Hymenoxys  florihunda) . 

Sampson's  mertensia  {Mertensia  Sampsonii). 

Scribner's  wheatgrass  {Agropyron  Scrihneri). 

Showy  oniongrass  {Melica  spectahilis) . 

Sneezeweed  {Helenium  Hoopesii). 

Tongue-leaved  violet  {Viola  linguaefolia) . 

Mixed  grass  and  weed  stage: 
Most  characteristic  species  — 

Small  mountain  porcupinegrass  {Stipa  minor). 

Yellowbrush  {Chrysothamnus  lanceolatus) . 
Other  species  of  the  mixed  grass  and  weed  stage  — 

Blue  foxglove  {Pentstemon  procerus). 

Geum  {Geum  Oregonense) . 

Junegrass  {Koeleria  cristata). 


130    RECOGNIZING  AND    CORRECTING   DECLINING   FORAGE 

Large  mountain  bromegrass  {Brotnus  margitiatus). 

Little  bluegrass  {Foa  Sandhergii). 

Low  loco  {Astragalus  decumhens). 

Mountain  lupine  {Lupinus  alpestris). 

Nevada  bluegrass  {Poa  Nevadensis). 

Porter's  bromegrass  {Bromus  Porteri). 

Single-flowered  helianthella  {Helianthella  uniflora). 

Spiked  fescue  (Festuca  confinis). 

Spiked  trisetum  {Trisetum  spicatum). 

Sweet  sage  {Artemisia  discolor). 

Western  fescue  {Festuca  occidentalis) . 

Yarrow  {Achillea  lanulosa). 

Climax  herbaceous  stage: 

Most  characteristic  species  — 

Small  wheatgrass  {Agropyron  dasystachyum). 

Blue  bunch  wheatgrass  {Agropyron  spicatum). 

Slender  wheatgrass  {Agropyron  tenerum). 
Other  species  of  the  climax  herbaceous  stage  — 

Violet  wheatgrass  {Agropyron  violaceum). 

The  more  species  that  are  made  use  of  as  indicators  of  pasture 
conditions  the  safer  are  the  conclusions.  For  instance,  if  a  type 
is  merging  into  the  early  or  first  weed  stage  from  a  higher  plant 
cover,  assurance  of  this  fact  is  found  in  the  increasing  abundance 
of  several  of  the  most  characteristic  "  primary  "  species  of  the 
early  weed  stage,  and  in  the  presence  here  and  there  at  least  of 
the  less  common  forms  of  that  stage. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  can  not  the  waning  of  a  pasture  be  satisfactorily  judged  by  the 
condition  of  the  stock  grazed? 

2.  Discuss  the  theory  of  plant  succession  in  relation  to  grazing  capacity 
and  range  management. 

3.  Enumerate  three  conspicuous  indications  of  overgrazing. 

4.  (a)  Name  four  t^q^e  stages  of  native  pasture  vegetation,     {b)  Which  of 
these  is  the  highest,  and  which  is  the  lowest? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  131 

6.  How  may  the  waning  of  the  wheatgrass  cover  be  detected  in  its  early 
stages? 

6.  Discuss  the  forage  value  of  the  wheatgrass  type. 

7.  What  are  the  most  characteristic  plants  of  the  mixed  grass  and  weed 
cover? 

8.  Compare  the  grazing  value  of  the  mixed  grass  and  weed  stage  of  vege- 
tation with  that  of  (i)  the  climax  herbaceous  stage,  (2)  the  second  weed  stage, 
and  (3)  the  first  or  early  weed  stage. 

9.  Name  seven  species  common  to  the  second  weed  stage. 

10.  Name  six  species  characteristic  of  the  first  or  early  weed  stage. 

11.  What  effect  does  the  continued  grazing  of  sheep  have  on  an  area  in  the 
first  weed  stage? 

12.  Discuss  the  effect  of  the  use  of  a  permanent  bed  groimd  on  (i)  the 
vegetation  and  (2)  the  grazing  capacity  of  the  lands  adjacent  to  the  bed 
ground  proper. 

13.  (a)  Are  the  grazing  indicator  species  the  same  everywhere?  (b)  How 
may  they  be  recognized  in  different  localities? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chapline,  W.  R.     Production  of  Goats  on  Far  Western  Ranges.     U.  S. 

Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  749,  1919. 
Clements,  Frederic  E.     Plant  Indicators:   The  Relation  of  Plant  Com- 
munities to  Processes  and  Practice.     Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash., 

Pub.  No.  290,  1920. 
Plant  Succession:    An  Analysis  of  the  Development  of  Vegetation. 

Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash.,  Pub.  No.  242,  1916. 
CowLES,  Henry  C.     The  Physiographic  Ecology  of  Chicago  and  Vicinity. 

Bot.  Gaz.,  Vol.  31,  Nos.  2  and  3,  1901. 
Hole,  R.  S.     On  Some  Indian  Forest  Grasses  and  Their  Ecology.     Indian 

Forest  Memoirs,  Vol.  i,  No.  i,  191 1. 
Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark.     Range  Management  on  the 

National  Forests.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  1919. 
Moss,  C.  E.     The  Fundamental  Units  of  Vegetation.    New  Phytologist, 

Vol.  9,  Nos.  I  and  2,  1910. 
Sampson,  Arthur  W.     Herding  Hints  from  the  Changing  Range.    Nat'l 

Wool  Grower,  Vol.  10,  No.  5,  May,  1920. 
Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Management.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agr.  Bui.  791,  1919. 
Succession  as  a  Factor  in  Range  Management.    Jour,  of  Forestry,  Vol. 

15,  No.  5,  1917. 
Warming,  Eug.     Oecology  of  Plants.     Clarendon  Press,  Oxford,  1909. 


CHAPTER  VII 
PRINCIPAL   INTRODUCED   FORAGE   GRASSES 

On  both  temporary  and  permanent  farm  pastures  of  the 
United  States  cultivated  forage  plants  are  the  ones  most  exten- 
sively grown.  Many  of  the  species  used  yield  heavily,  remain 
palatable  during  a  long  growing  season,  and  withstand  cropping 
well;  others  fail  chiefly  because  of  their  unsuitability  to  the 
climatic  or  soil  conditions.  Therefore  it  is  important  to  know 
the  climatic,  soil,  and  cultural  requirements  of  the  more  valu- 
able species. 

Classification  of  Cultivated  Plants.  —  The  world  over,  there 
are  probably  not  less  than  10,000  species  of  grasses.  According 
to  Hitchcock,^  about  1,500  species  occur  in  the  United  States. 
Of  these,  however,  about  25,  or  maybe  a  few  more,  species  are 
extensively  cultivated,  some  as  cereal  crops,  and  others  for  the 
pasture,  hay,  or  fodder  which  they  produce.  Not  more  than 
five  perennial  grasses  are  sown  extensively  on  permanent  pas- 
tures in  this  country.  These  are  Kentucky  bluegrass,  Canada 
bluegrass,  Bermudagrass,  Hungarian  bromegrass,  and  redtop. 
Some  of  these  are  drought-enduring;  others  are  well  adapted  to 
wet  or,  indeed,  acid  soils;  and  one  (Bermudagrass)  is  well  suited 
to  the  humid,  warm  South. 

For  hay  and  pasture  combined,  timothy,  orchardgrass,  Ken- 
tucky bluegrass,  and  redtop  are  generally  listed  as  the  "  big 
four  "  — ■  the  leaders.  Of  less  importance  are  such  species  as  tall 
oatgrass,  meadow  fescue,  Johnsongrass,  Sudangrass,  the  rye- 
grasses, and  certain  fescues. 

Kentucky  Bluegrass.  —  Kentucky  bluegrass  (Poa  pratensis) 
is  also  known  as  Junegrass,  smooth-stalked  meadowgrass,  or 
simply  bluegrass.     It  is  a  perennial  which  grows  in  tufts  but 

1  Hitchcock,  A.  S.,  "The  Genera  of  Grasses  of  the  United  States."  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  772,  p.  3,  1920. 

132 


KENTUCKY  BLUEGRASS 


^33 


produces  abundant  rootstocks  by  means  of  which  a  firm  sod  is 
formed.  The  panicle  is  spreading  and  is  2  to  5  inches  long.  The 
spikelets  mostly  bear  from  3  to  5  flowers  (Fig.  38). 

Kentucky  bluegrass  is  probably  the  greatest  of  all  pasture 
grasses  cultivated  in  America^  and  is  grown  extensively  in  a 


Fig.  38.  —  KENTUCKY  BLUEGRASS  (.Poa  pratensis). 

moderately  moist,  cool  climate  on  limestone  or  neutral  soils. 
In  the  cool  mountain  lands  of  the  South  it  thrives  well,  but  in 

1  Hitchcock  says  that  forms  of  P.  pratensis  occur  natively  north  of  the  United 
States,  in  Canada  and  Alaska,  but  that  all  the  United  States  material  he  has  exam- 
ined and  all  cultivated  material  is  of  the  Old  World  type,  and  that,  as  a  cultivated 
plant,  Kentucky  bluegrass  is  not  American  but  European. 


134  PRINCIP/\L  INTRODUCED  FORAGE  GRASSES 

the  warmer  and  more  humid  parts  of  this  region  the  growth  is 
not  vigorous.  In  acid  soils,  too,  Kentucky  bluegrass  docs  not 
thrive.  The  conditions  in  the  Plains  region  are  too  dry  for  the 
successful  growth  of  Kentucky  bluegrass.  In  most  localities 
three  years  are  required  for  the  establishment  of  a  good  blue- 
grass  sod.  In  forage  mixtures  four  or  five  years  are  usually 
required  after  seeding  before  the  bluegrass  clearly  predominates. 
As  a  hay  plant,  Kentucky  bluegrass  does  not  rank  particularly 
high,  the  yield  being  light  because  of  the  low  stature  of  the  plant. 
The  seed  habits  are  fairly  strong,  but  the  viability  of  the  seed 
is  often  low;  accordingly  it  is  highly  important  to  know  the 
germination  strength  of  the  seed  before  purchasing. 

In  establishing  a  pasture,  bluegrass  seed  may  be  scattered  with 
wheat  in  the  fall  or  in  early  spring  along  with  other  grasses  or 
with  clovers.  Seeding  in  midsummer  seldom  results  in  the  ob- 
taining of  a  good  stand.  For  a  full  stand  of  Kentucky  bluegrass 
35  to  40  pounds  of  seed  should  be  used  per  acre.  Because  of  the 
heavy  expense,  however,  15  to  20  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  is 
usually  more  economical,  as  the  stand  resulting  from  such 
seeding  is  sufficient  soon  to  extend  itself  over  the  area.  If  a 
small  amount  of  bluegrass  seed  is  used,  the  seed  of  other  species 
should  be  included  to  provide  a  temporary  pasture  while  the 
bluegrass  is  becoming  established. 

Fifty  years  ago  Kentucky  bluegrass  was  practically  unknown 
in  the  middle  and  far  West.  Now  it  is  a  common  roadside  grass 
within  its  natural  climatic  region.  Growth  starts  early  in  the 
spring,  but  the  plant  also  matures  early.  Little  growth  is  made 
during  hot  weather;  but  with  ample  moisture  in  the  fall  an 
abundance  of  leafage  is  produced,  and  the  cover  again  furnishes 
excellent  grazing.  Kentucky  bluegrass  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  our  grasses  for  all  classes  of  stock. 

Kentucky  bluegrass  is  the  ideal  lawn  grass,  as  its  luxuriant 
leafage  and  abundance  of  rootstocks  tend  to  cover  and  bind  the 
soil  thoroughly.  Like  most  sodgrasses,  frequent  cutting  does 
not  seem  to  weaken  the  stand.  If  white  clover  is  seeded  with 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  it  makes  a  very  satisfactory  growth,  either 
in  the  pasture  or  on  the  lawn. 


BERMUDAGRASS  135 

Canada  Bluegrass.  —  Canada  bluegrass  {Poa  compressa)  is 
known  also  as  English  bluegrass,  flatstem  bluegrass,  and  Virginia 
bluegrass.  It  is  a  perennial  and  in  appearance  closely  resembles 
Kentucky  bluegrass  (P.  pralensis),  from  which  it  differs  in  its 
lower  stature,  bluer  foHage,  flatter  stems,  and  narrower  panicles. 

Canada  bluegrass  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  was  among  the 
first  of  the  grasses  to  be  introduced  into  North  America.  It  is 
well  adapted  to  cool  climates  and  is  especially  suited  to  poor,  dry 
soils,  as  well  as  to  those  of  low  lime  content.  The  plant  is 
increasing  in  abundance  in  the  West,  but  it  is  much  more  impor- 
tant in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada. 

Although  Canada  bluegrass  is  less  productive  than  Kentucky 
bluegrass,  it  enjoys  an  excellent  reputation  in  most  quarters  as 
a  pasture  plant  for  dairy  stock.  Scribner^  says  it  is  an  ideal 
species  for  this  purpose.  It  is  particularly  valuable  in  the 
Northeastern  States  and  Canada,  but  is  not  a  heavy  yielder. 
Remarkably  good  stands  are  found  on  exposed  hillsides  and 
knolls  where  the  species  produces  more  heavily  than  almost  any 
other  cultivated  grass.  When  planted  for  hay  or  pasture  the 
seed  should  be  scattered  with  that  of  other  grasses.  Canada 
bluegrass  is  unusually  persistent  once  it  is  well  estabhshed. 
From  5  to  10  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  in  a  mixture  is  usually 
sufficient  to  insure  a  good  stand.  It  is  not  generally  wise  to  seed 
Canada  bluegrass  where  Kentucky  bluegrass  grows  well,  but  on 
poor  soils  it  possesses  unusual  merit.  For  artificial  reseeding 
of  depleted  mountain  range  lands,  Canada  bluegrass  appears 
to  have  considerable  value.  The  seed  is  usually  less  expensive 
than  that  of  Kentucky  bluegrass,  and  hence  it  is  not  uncommonly 
used  as  an  adulterant.  The  seeds  of  these  species  are  readily 
distinguished  only  by  a  seed  expert. 

Bermudagrass.  —  Bermudagrass  (Capriola  Dactylon)  is  a  native 
of  India  and  the  Mediterranean  region.  It  is  thought  to  have 
been  introduced  into  this  country  from  Europe  about  1800.  It 
may  now  be  called  the  most  important  pasture  grass  throughout 
the  southern  half  of  the  United  States,  where  it  holds  much  the 

^  Scribner,  F.  Lamson-,  "Useful  and  Economic  Grasses."  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.,  Div.  of  Agrost.,  Bui.  3,  pp.  78,  79,  1896. 


136 


PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED   FORAGF.   GRASSES 


same  rank  as  Kentucky  bluegrass  in  the  more  northerly  States. 
Bermudagrass  occurs  abundantly  throughout  the  cotton  belt 
and  Gulf  coast  region.  In  some  parts  of  the  South  it  has  been 
regarded  as  a  pestiferous  weed,  but  it  can  be  held  in  check  or 
even  eradicated  by  growing  on  the  Bermuda  lands  such  crops  as 
cowpeas,  velvet  beans,  and  sorghum,  which  produce  a  dense 
shade.     Eradication  is  also  accomplished,  after  a  perfect  sod  i? 


Fig.  39.  —  BERMUDAGRASS   (Capriola  Dactylon). 

formed,  by  shallow  ploughing,  followed  by  intensive  tillage  dur- 
ing the  dry,  hot  summer  months. 

Bermudagrass  is  a  strong  perennial  with  extensive,  creeping 
rootstocks  (Fig.  39).     In  good  soils  the  foliage  develops  sufficient 


HUNGARIAN   BROMEGRASS  137 

length  to  warrant  cutting  it  for  hay;  but  on  poor  lands  the  leaves 
and  flower  stalks  are  low.  Seed  production  of  Bermudagrass, 
like  that  of  most  sodgrasses,  is  somewhat  low.  Seed  in  abun- 
dance is  produced  only  in  hot,  dry  weather.  Seed  production 
of  the  species  has  not  yet  been  widely  commercialized. 

Although  the  distribution  of  Bermudagrass  is  wide,  extending 
from  Massachusetts  and  southern  New  York  to  Florida,  Mis- 
souri, New  Mexico,  and  Arizona,  along  the  Pacific  slope  from 
Washington  to  California,  and  south  through  Mexico  and  South 
America  to  Uruguay,  it  occurs  in  economic  importance  in  this 
country  only  in  the  South.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  aerial 
growth  is  readily  killed  by  frost,  and  the  roots  die  where  the  soil 
freezes. 

As  the  seed  is  expensive,  the  ground  should  be  thoroughly 
prepared  before  sowing.  From  4  to  6  pounds  of  seed  is  usually 
sufficient  to  produce  a  good  stand.  It  is  best  to  resort  to  pure 
seeding  because  Bermudagrass  is  intolerant  of  shade.  Not  un- 
commonly the  roots tocks,  which  are  unusually  persistent,  are 
scattered  over  the  land  in  order  to  establish  a  sod.  This  is  done 
by  breaking  up  the  sod  into  small  pieces  and  scattering  these  in 
furrows  2  to  4  feet  apart. 

Where  Bermudagrass  grows  luxuriantly,  in  carrying  capacity 
it  ranks  very  high  among  the  grasses.  The  palatability  remains 
high  almost  throughout  the  season,  though,  to  be  sure,  in  late 
summer  the  leafage  may  become  somewhat  tough.  The  plant 
withstands  trampling  exceedingly  well. 

Hungarian  Bromegrass.  —  Hungarian  bromegrass  {Bromus 
inermis)  is  also  known  as  smooth,  awnless,  Austrian,  or  Russian 
brome.  It  is  a  long-lived  perennial,  2  to  5  feet  high,  with  strong 
creeping  rootstocks  by  means  of  which  a  tough  sod  is  formed. 
The  panicle  is  loose  and  open,  and  from  4  to  6  inches  long.  The 
spikelets  are  erect,  flattened,  awnless,  and  about  an  inch  long 
(Fig.  40).  Hungarian  bromegrass  is  a  native  of  the  upland 
plains  of  eastern  Europe,  being  most  abundant  in  Austria  and 
Russia.  The  plant  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  the 
early  eighties  and  is  now  widely  grown  throughout  the  Northern 
and  Western  States.     It  is  especially  well  adapted  to  the  North- 


138  PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED   FORAGE   GRASSES 

em  States,  and  is  of  considerable  importance  in  the  mountains 
of  the  arid  West. 

The  species  is  unusually  hardy,  being  very  drought-enduring 
and  resistant  to  cold.  In  hot  climates  the  plant  does  not  thrive. 
The  plant  is  very  leafy  and  under  favorable  conditions  furnishes 
such  a  large  amount  of  forage  as  to  obscure  the  ground  com- 


FiG.  40.  —  HUNGARIAN  OR  SMOOTH  BROMEGRASS   {Bromus  inermis). 

pletely.  The  strong  rootstocks  protect  the  plant  from  injury 
by  trampling.  Although  Hungarian  brome  furnishes  an  abun- 
dance of  desirable  hay,  it  is  most  valuable  for  pasture.  All 
classes  of  stock  are  fond  of  the  leafage,  which  usually  remains 
succulent  and  tender  from  early  spring  until  late  in  the  autumn. 
In  establishing  bromegrass  the  seed  may  be  scattered  either  in 
early  spring  or  early  fall,  preferably  with  clover.     As  the  seed  is 


REDTOP 


139 


light  and  large,  it  is  usually  sown  broadcast,  preferably  by  hand. 
If  it  is  sown  pure,  about  25  pounds  should  be  used  to  the  acre. 
Not  infrequently  the  seed  is  scattered  with  that  of  oats,  the  aim 
being  to  sow  about  one  bushel  of  oats  per  acre  with  about  20 
pounds  of  the  bromegrass 
seed.  The  nurse  crop  —  oats, 
for  example  —  should  be  cut 
early,  in  order  that  the  brome- 
grass stand  may  not  be  sup- 
pressed. 

Hungarian  bromegrass  does 
well  on  the  Ughter,  moder- 
ately moist  soils.  The  largest 
yields,  however,  are  obtained 
on  moist,  deep,  rich,  loamy 
soils.  Even  under  the  best 
conditions  bromegrass  stands 
become  sod-bound  in  a  few 
years.  Accordingly,  it  is  best 
to  take  a  few  hay  crops  off 
the  land  and  then  use  it  for 
pasture  for  two  or  three  years. 
After  that  the  land  had  best 
be  plowed  and  used  for  grow- 
ing other  cultivated  crops. 

Redtop.  —  Red  top  (Agros- 
tis  palustris),  formerly  known 
to  botanists  as  A.  alba}  is 
also  called  herd's  grass  in  the 
southern  United  States,  and 
bent  grass  in  England.  It  is 
a  perennial  and  will  be  recog- 
nized by  its  reclining  or  root- 
ing base,  the  short  rootstocks, 
the  numerous  flat  leaves,  and  the  erect,  open  panicle,  2  to  12 

'  The  scientific  name  of  redtop  will  be  found  in  seed  catalogues  as  Agrostis 
alba,  A .  alba  vulgaris,  or  A .  capillaris. 


REDTOP    (Asrostis  palustris). 


140  PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED    FORAGE   GRASSES 

inches  long.  The  spikelets  are  commonly  red  or  purple,  turning 
green  or  brown  at  maturity  (Fig.  41). 

Redtop  is  a  relatively  important  grass  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  more  widely  adapted  to  a  variety  of  climatic 
and  soil  conditions  than  timothy,  withstands  higher  temper- 
atures, and  is  well  adapted  to  wet  or  boggy  soils.  On  acid  lands 
redtop  is  commonly  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  grasses,  and  on 
very  wet  lands  its  yield  is  unusually  heavy.  Redtop,  however, 
is  not  held  in  so  high  esteem  as  timothy,  and  hence  occupies 
second  place  where  timothy  can  be  grown  successfully.  How- 
ever, where  timothy  fails  to  produce  a  good  crop,  redtop  is 
grown  somewhat  extensively. 

The  principal  merit  of  redtop  as  a  pasture  or  meadow  plant  is 
that  it  will  often  grow  where  timothy  fails.  As  pasture  the 
forage  is  nutritious,  yet  the  leafage  is  not  relished  so  highly  by 
most  classes  of  stock  as  is  that  of  the  most  palatable  grasses. 
A  good  quality  of  hay  of  fairly  high  palatability  is  obtained  if 
the  grass  is  cut  when  young.  If,  however,  the  grass  is  allowed 
to  stand  until  after  it  blossoms,  the  leafage  becomes  somewhat 
harsh  and  woody,  and  the  quality  of  the  hay  is  impaired.  As 
the  quality  of  redtop  hay  is  not  considered  to  be  so  high  as  that 
of  timothy,  it  is  not  advisable  to  seed  redtop  and  timothy  to- 
gether. 

Redtop  seed  is  comparatively  low  in  price,  and  the  germination 
is  usually  good.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  seed  germinates 
in  2  to  4  days.  When  sown  pure,  10  to  12  pounds  of  seed  to  the 
acre  is  used,  whereas  in  mixtures  2  to  5  pounds  is  recommended. 
The  seeding  operations,  cultural  methods,  and  season  of  seeding 
are  similar  to  those  of  timothy. 

Timothy.  —  The  derivation  of  the  name  timothy  {Phleum 
pratense)  is  uncertain.  By  some  it  is  traced  to  one  Timothy 
Hanson,  who  is  said  to  have  carried  the  seed  from  New  York 
to  the  Carolinas  about  1720.  Timothy  is  also  known  as  Herd's 
grass,  from  a  Mr.  Timothy  Herd  of  New  Hampshire,  who  is 
said  to  have  found  it  in  a  swamp  in  that  State  and  to  have  begun 
its  cultivation.  If  the  latter  explanation  is  authentic.  Herd  gave 
both  his  names  to  the  species.     Timothy  is  a  hardy  perennial 


TIMOTHY 


141 


with  erect  stems,  bulbous  at  the  base.  It  forms  more  or  less 
indefinite  tufts  or  stools  as  new  stalks  originate  from  the  crown 
(Fig.  42). 

Timothy  occupies  more  than  half  of  the  area  upon  which 
forage  crops  in  the  United  States  are  grown.  It  is  the  chief 
cultivated  hay  grass  in  all  regions  north  of  the 
Ohio  River.  It  is  adapted  to  a  great  variety 
of  soils,  although  the  best  yields  are  produced 
on  rich,  moist  loams  and  clays.  The  growth 
is  less  prolific  on  sandy  soUs. 

Timothy  is  valuable  for  hay  rather  than 
for  pasture.  It  is  often  used  in  pasture  mix- 
tures for  early  or  temporary  pasturage,  but 
the  stand  soon  gives  way  to  sodgrasses. 
Moreover,  it  does  not  long  withstand  close 
grazing  or  trampHng,  and  its  period  of  life  is 
not  extended.  As  a  meadow  grass,  how- 
ever, there  is  none  better.  In  most  locahties 
timothy  is  grown  in  a  4-  or  5-year  rotation 
and  is  usually  seeded  with  clover  in  wheat, 
oats,  or  rye.  In  such  seeding,  clover  is  much 
in  evidence  the  first  year,  but  in  the  second 
year  timothy  predominates. 

The  summer  period  (August  or  early  Sep- 
tember) is  the  most  favorable  time  to  seed 
timothy.  A  clean,  well-packed,  moist  seed 
bed  is  best.  If  such  land  is  not  available,  a 
nurse  crop  should  be  used.  Fifteen  pounds  of 
timothy  seed  to  the  acre  is  sufficient  when 
seeded  pure.  When  clover  and  timothy  are 
sown  together,  a  good  stand  may  be  obtained 
by  using  6  to  8  pounds  of  timothy,  7  pounds 
of  red  clover,  and  3  pounds  of  Alsike  clover. 
The  seed  should  be  harrowed  in  lightly. 
When  scattered  with  small  grain,  the  seed  may  be  distributed 
by  means  of  a  grass  seeder  attached  to  a  grain  drill  which  drops 
the  timothy  in  front  of  the  drill  rows. 


Fig.  42.  — timothy 

(Phleum  pratense). 


142 


PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED   FORAGE   GRASSES 


The  largest  yield  of  the  most  nutritious  hay  is  obtained  if 
timothy  is  cut  shortly  after  the  blossoms  have  fallen,  but  not 
later  than  when  the  seed  is  in  the  dough.  Yields  in  excess  of 
4^  tons  per  acre  have  repeatedly  been  reported,  but  2|  tons  is 
about  the  average. 

The  seed  habits  of  timothy  are  unusually  strong.  The  yield 
of  seed  per  acre  varies  from  5  to  12  bushels.  The  cutting  is  done 
with  the  ordinary  grain  or  "  self  "  binder,  and  the  bundles  are 

dried  in  shocks.  The  seed  is 
separated  in  the  regular  grain 
thresher,  special  sieves  being 
used. 

Orchardgrass.  —  Orchard- 
grass  (Dactylis  glomerata)  is 
known  in  England  as  cock's- 
foot.  It  is  a  hardy  perennial, 
though  not  so  resistant  to  cold 
and  drought  as  Hungarian 
brome.  It  is  without  root- 
stocks  and  forms  dense  circular 
tufts  several  inches  in  diameter. 
The  culms  are  smooth,  from  2 
to  4  feet  high.  The  panicle  is 
3  to  6  inches  long,  bearing  a 
few  one-sided  clusters  of  green 
or  purplish  spikelets  (Fig.  43). 
Orchardgrass  grows  wild 
throughout  the  greater  part  of 
Europe  and  in  northern  Asia. 
The  plant  was  introduced  in- 
to the  United  States  about 
1740.  It  is  now  widely  grown 
as  a  hay  and  pasture  plant  in 
western  Asia,  northern  Africa,  and  in  various  parts  of  North 
America. 

As  the  name  orchardgrass  would  imply,  the  plant  is  well 
adapted  to  grow  in  shade.    It  ranks  high  in  nutrient  qualities, 


Fig.  43-  —  ORCHARDGRASS 

(Daclylis  glomerata). 


THE    RYEGRASSES 


143 


but  the  leafage  is  not  eaten  with  so  much 
gusto  as  is  that  of  Kentucky  bluegrass  or 
Hungarian  bromegrass.  When  cut  early  the 
plant  makes  good  hay. 

Next  to  Kentucky  bluegrass,  orchardgrass  is 
one  of  the  earliest  to  start  growth  in  the 
spring.  Growing,  as  it  does,  in  tufts,  it  does 
not  withstand  so  heavy  grazing  as  sodgrasses; 
nevertheless,  a  good  stand  is  remarkably  per- 
sistent. Severe  cutting  tests  conducted  by 
the  author  in  the  mountains  of  central  Utah 
have  brought  out  the  fact  that  well-estab- 
lished tufts  withstand  closer  cropping  than  do 
many  native  tufted  species.  Good  orchard- 
grass  meadows  have  been  reported  to  yield 
heavy  crops  for  as  long  as  15  years. 

The  Ryegrasses.  —  Two  ryegrasses  —  per- 
ennial ryegrass  {Lolium  perenne)  and  Itahan 
rye  {L.  Italicum)  —  are  cultivated  more  or 
less  in  this  country. 

Perennial  ryegrass  is  among  the  first  of  the 
Old  World  species  to  be  cultivated  in  this 
country.  Its  native  home  is  in  temperate  Asia 
and  southern  Europe.  Thus  far  it  has  not 
been  extensively  cultivated  in  this  country,  as 
it  is  not  well  adapted  to  either  a  very  cold  or 
a  very  hot  climate.  It  is  well  suited  to  wet 
soils  but  is  a  short-lived  plant  (Fig.  44). 

Seed  of  perennial  ryegrass  may  be  scattered 
in  either  spring  or  fall.  It  is  usually  sown 
pure,  about  25  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  being 
required.  One  objection  to  the  use  of  peren- 
nial ryegrass  is  that  the  seed  is  very  dear. 
Practically  all  of  the  seed  used  in  "this  country 
is  grown  in  Europe. 

Italian    ryegrass    is  a  native    of   southern  Fig. 44.— perennial 

T-,  ^1  .  r   •  1  ,  A     .  RYEGRASS  {Lolium 

Europe,  northern   Airica,  and  western  Asia,     perenne). 


144  PRINCIPAL   INTRODUCED    FORAGE   GRASSES 

It  is  not  suited  to  regions  where  the  winters  are  cold,  but  in 
mild  climates  it  makes  a  strong,  vigorous  growth.  Where  the 
climate  is  favorable  it  is  an  excellent  plant  for  use  in  tempo- 
rary pastures.  About  30  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  required 
for  a  full  stand.     It  may  be  sown  in  either  fall  or  spring. 

Italian  ryegrass,  like  perennial  rye,  is  used  extensively  in  lawn 
mixtures.  Growing  rapidly,  as  it  does,  and  being  short-lived, 
it  is  an  excellent  species  for  seeding  with  Kentucky  bluegrass 
and  white  clover. 

Johnsongrass.  —  Johnsongrass  (Holcus  Halepensis)  is  a  robust, 
smooth  perennial,  with  stems  3  to  5  feet  high,  provided  with 
strong,  creeping  rhizomes.  The  panicle  is  open  and  spread- 
ing, 6  to  12  inches  long,  reddish  or  purple,  and  hairy  at  the 
base. 

Johnsongrass  is  a  native  of  the  Old  World  but  is  now  exten- 
sively naturalized  in  America.  It  is  a  somewhat  valuable  forage 
and  meadow  grass  in  the  South,  but  on  account  of  its  tendency 
to  spread  in  cultivated  fields,  and  the  difficulty  of  eradicating  it, 
the  plant  cannot  be  recommended  generally. 

The  plant  is  valuable  for  the  hay  which  it  produces.  The  best 
growth  is  procured  on  heavy  soils,  preferably  those  rich  in  lime. 
When  grazed  for  more  than  two  seasons  the  leafage  is  usually 
much  reduced.  Grazing  does  not  destroy  the  stand,  however. 
On  permanent  meadows  this  grass,  if  its  tenacious  habits  are  dis- 
regarded, is  probably  the  best  hay  species  in  certain  parts  of  the 
South,  notably  on  the  black  soils  of  central  Texas,  where  it 
reaches  its  maximum  development.  Where  the  crops  are  to  be 
rotated  Johnsongrass  has  no  place.  The  plant  can  be  eradicated, 
however,  but  the  process  is  tedious  and  expensive. 

Unfortunately  Johnsongrass  occasionally  produces  toxic  symp- 
toms in  stock,  hydrocyanic  acid  being  formed  under  certain  con- 
ditions, especially  in  second  growth.  As  a  poisonous  species, 
however,  the  plant  requires  further  study. 

Sudangrass.  —  Sudangrass'  {Holcus  Sorghum  Sudanensis), 
though  an  annual,  resembles  Johnsongrass  in  habit  of  growth, 
but  is  without  rootstocks  (Fig.  45).  It  is  grown  principally  as 
a  hay  and  soiling  crop,  though  in  some  localities  it  is  used  as  a 


SUDANGRASS 


145 


pasture  plant.     It  grows  on  a  variety  of  well-drained  soils  and 
is  relatively  drought-enduring. 

Sudangrass  is  sometimes  sown  broadcast,  but  is  best  planted 
in  drills  12  to  18  inches  apart.  In  sections  best  adapted  to  its 
growth  Sudangrass  may  be  cut  two  to  four  times.     The  yield  is 


'^^fmi^3^y:l 


^UDANGRASS   {Holcus  Sorghum  Siulan 


3  to  8  tons  of  excellent  hay  per  acre.  It'is  reported  that  Sudan- 
grass,  grown  under  irrigation  at  Chico,  California,  produced  a 
yield  of  9.8  tons  of  cured  hay  per  acre. 

Being  a  drought-enduring  plant  it  does  not  do  well  in  regions 


146 


PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED   FORAGE   GRASSES 


of  excessive  rainfall,  as  in  parts  of  Florida  and  along  the  Gulf 

coast  of  Texas.  In  the  central 
and  northern  portions  of  the 
cotton  region  and  in  the  drier 
portions  of  Texas  and  Arkan- 
sas Sudangrass  is  a  valuable 
hay  plant. 

Tall  Oatgrass.  —  Tall  oat- 
grass  {Arrhenatherum  elatius), 
also  known  as  Randall  grass, 
is  a  tall-growing  perennial 
bunchgrass,  with  narrow  pan- 
icles resembling  the  common 
oat  (Fig.  46).  It  is  a  native 
of  Europe  and  is  grown  to  a 
limited  extent  for  hay  and 
pasture  in  this  country. 

As  the  plant  does  not  form 
a  sod,  the  best  results  are  ob- 
tained when  it  is  sown  in  com- 
bination with  other  grasses. 
The  most  luxuriant  growth  is 
enjoyed  in  mild  climates  of  the 
South.  Here  it  matures  with 
the  earhest  of  the  grasses,  and 
when  it  is  cut  early  an  excel- 
lent aftermath  of  pasture  is 
produced.  Also,  in  the  South, 
as  the  growth  continues  late 
in  the  fall,  the  plant  furnishes 
good  winter  pasture.  The 
seed  habits  are  strong. 

For  hay  the  plant  is  not 
highly  satisfactory  because  of 
its    low    palatability.       Tall 

oatgrass  is  valued  chiefly  because  of  its  hardiness  and  the  early 

pasture  feed  which  it  furnishes. 


Fig.  46. 


(U.S.  Dept.  ofAgr.) 
■TALL    OATGRASS     (Arrhenatherum 
elalius). 


MEADOW   FESCUE 


147 


Meadow  Fescue.  —  Meadow  fescue  {Festuca  elatior),  also 
called  English  bluegrass,  and  formerly- 
known  to  botanists  as  F.  pratensis,  is  a 
tufted,  smooth  perennial  grass  which 
grows  from  i^  to  4  feet  tall.  The  tuft 
is  characteristic  in  being  more  spread- 
ing, loose,  and  open  in  habit  than  that 
of  most  bunchgrasses.  The  leaves  have 
the  appearance  of  those  of  Kentucky 
bluegrass  but  are  more  stiff  and  wiry. 
The  panicle  is  narrow,  flat,  and  some- 
what contracted  (Fig.  47).  Meadow 
fescue  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  from  Europe  about  1850.  It  is 
grown  most  successfully  at  the  present 
time  in  the  corn  belt  region,  notably  in 
Missouri  and  Kansas. 

The  amount  of  forage  produced  is  not 
large,  but  the  grass  is  rich  in  nutrients 
and  is  relished  highly  by  stock  both  as 
pasture  and  as  hay.  If  it  is  to  be  har- 
vested as  hay,  the  cutting  should  be 
early,  for  otherwise  the  leafage  is  some- 
what tough  and  wiry.  Under  favorable 
conditions  an  excellent  aftermath  of 
pasture  leafage  is  produced,  and  this  re- 
mains green  and  tender  until  late  in  the 
fall. 

In  general,  meadow  fescue  is  not  so 
valuable  a  plant  as  orchardgrass  or 
smooth  bromegrass.  When  used  either 
for  pasture  or  as  a  hay  plant,  meadow 
fescue  is  not  long-lived. 

In  planting  meadow  fescue,  it  is  best 
to  plow  the  land  and  establish  a  good 
seed  bed.  About  30  pounds  of  seed  to 
the  acre  will  usually  be  sufficient  to  produce  a  good  stand. 


Fig.  47.  —  MEADOW  FESCUE 

(Fesluca  elatior). 


fKUrCJil  I    uonnnm 

^.  C.  Stale  CoUtgt 

148  PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED    FORAGE   GRASSES 

GRASS  MIXTURES 

In  the  foregoing  discussion  various  grass  mixtures  have  been 
several  times  suggested.  Combinations  of  grasses  and  legumes 
are  generally  to  be  preferred  to  a  grass  cover  of  a  single  species. 
The  advantages  are  essentially  these:  Combination  stands  usu- 
ally afford  more  continuous  cropping;  they  yield  more;  the 
palatability  of  the  forage  throughout  the  season  is  higher;  and 
the  crop  may  possibly  be  a  better-balanced  ration  of  food. 

In  choosing  grasses  for  pasture,  one  should  be  careful  to  select 
species  in  such  a  way  that  the  deficiencies  of  one  may  be  balanced 
by  the  advantages  of  another;  for  instance,  he  should  choose 
species  that  do  not  mature  at  the  same  time  and  plants  whose 
seasons  of  maximum  production  do  not  occur  simultaneously. 

Mixtures  for  Temporary  Pasture.  —  For  temporary  pasture, 
to  be  used  only  two  or  three  years,  quick-growing  grasses  and 
clovers  are  best.  The  following  combination  is  popular  because 
of  the  good  results  obtained: 

Pounds  Pounds 

Alsike  clover 2  Timothy 4 

English  ryegrass 12  Red  clover _4 

Redtop 2  Total 24 

If  stock  is  allowed  on  the  pasture  early  in  the  season,  the  seed- 
ing should  be  somewhat  heavier  than  here  recommended,  as  a 
goodly  proportion  of  the  seedlings  is  destroyed  by  trampling. 
In  this  combination  the  ryegrass  will  produce  the  earliest  and 
largest  amount  of  forage  the  first  year,  but  in  the  second  season 
it  will  be  largely  replaced  by  timothy  and  redtop. 

Mixtures  for  Permanent  Pasture.  —  Combination  seeding 
especially  suited  to  the  bluegrass  and  timothy  region  should 
contain  both  early-developing  and  slow-growing  species.  The 
following  mixture  is  popular: 

Pounds  Pounds 

Kentucky  bluegrass 6  Timothy 6 

Orchardgrass 3  White  clover 2 

Red  clover 3 

Redtop 3  Total 23 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  149 

On  poor,  infertile  soils,  low  in  lime  content,  the  following  com- 
bination is  meritorious: 

Pounds  .     Pounds 

Alsike  clover 3        Redtop 3 

Canada  bluegrass 9        White  clover _2 

Orchardgrass 3        Total 20 


QUESTIONS 

1.  (a)  Approximately  how  many  native  grasses  occur  in  the  United 
States?  (b)  How  many  grasses  are  extensively  cultivated?  (c)  Name  the 
five  perennial  grasses  that  are  grown  extensively  on  permanent  pastures  in 
this  coimtry. 

2.  In  what  region  of  the  United  States  does  Kentucky  bluegrass  grow  well, 
and  in  what  region  does  it  fail  to  produce  a  good  crop? 

3.  Compare  (a)  the  distribution,  (b)  the  forage  value,  and  (c)  the  soil  re- 
quirements of  Canada  bluegrass  and  Kentucky  bluegrass. 

4.  (a)  Where  is  Bermudagrass  extensively  grown?  (b)  How  does  the 
grazing  capacity  of  Bermudagrass  compare  with  that  of  Kentucky  bluegrass? 

5.  (a)  Discuss  the  habit  of  growth  and  forage  value  of  Hungarian  brome- 
grass.     (6)  How  would  you  establish  a  pasture  of  Hungarian  brome? 

6.  Compare  (a)  the  palatability,  (b)  the  yield,  (c)  the  soil  requirements  of 
redtop  with  those  of  orchardgrass. 

7.  (a)  Is  timothy  more  valuable  for  hay  or  for  pasture?  (b)  How  many 
pounds  of  timothy  seed  should  be  sown  to  the  acre,  and  how  should  the  seed 
bed  be  prepared? 

8.  Discuss  the  value  of  (a)  ryegrass  and  (b)  Johnsongrass  for  permanent 
pastures. 

9.  How  does  the  palatabUity  of  tall  oatgrass  compare  with  that  of  meadow 
fescue? 

10.  Discuss  the  merits  of  seeding  to  a  mixture  of  grasses  and  other  species. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Ball,   C.   R.     Saccharine   Sorghums   for   Forage.     U.    S.   Dept.   of  Agr. 

Farmers  Bui.  246,  1906. 
Evans,  Morgan  W.     Timothy.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  990, 

1918. 
Piper,  C.  V.     Important  Cultivated  Grasses.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers 

Bui.  1254,  1922. 
Piper,  C.  V.,  and  Carrier,  Lyman.     Carpet  Grass.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 

Farmers  Bui.  1130,  1920. 


I50  PRINCIPAL  introducp:d  forage  grasses 

Piper,  C.  V.,  and  Hellman,  F.  H.    The  Agricultural  Species  of  Bent  Grasses. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  692,  1918. 
Spillman,  William  J.     Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States.     Orange  Judd 

Co.,  N.  Y.,  1905. 
Tracy,  S.  M.    Natal  Grass:  A  Southern  Perennial  Hay  Crop.     U.  S.  Dept. 

of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  726,  revised  1922. 
Rhodes  Grass.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  1048,  1919. 
Vinall,  H.  N.    Sudan  Grass  as  a  Forage.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui. 

605,  1914. 
Sudan  Grass.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  11 26,  1920. 

Note.  —  Several  of  the  works  listed  at  the  end  of  Chapter  VIII  contain 
material  on  grasses. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED   NONGRASSLIKE 
FORAGE   HERBS 

The  principal  introduced  nongrasslike  forage  plants  are  mem- 
bers of  the  pea,  pulse,  or  bean  family  {Fabaceae,  or  "  Fapilio- 
naceae  "  of  the  older  botanists).  This  great  natural  family  em- 
braces upwards  of  325  genera  and  5,000  species  of  world-wide 
distribution,  and  is  characterized  by  its  irregular,  5-merous, 
papilionaceous  ("  butterfly-like  ")  flowers,  the  stamens  mostly 
10  and  diadelphous,  and  by  the  stipulate,  usually  compound 
(mostly  pinnate  or  palmate)  leaves,  though  rarely  the  leaflets 
are  reduced  to  one.  Practically  all  the  older  botanists  and  a  few 
of  the  modern  ones  merge  the  family  Fabaceae  (under  the  sub- 
family or  tribal  names  Papilionoideae,  Faboideae,  etc.)  in  what 
is  called  by  them  the  legume  family  (Leguminosae) ,  a  group  con- 
stituting upwards  of  10,000  species,  whose  fruit  is  the  character- 
istic legume  ("  pea  pod  ")  but  whose  flowers  are,  save  for  the 
pea-bean  group,  mostly  rotate  and  never  truly  papilionaceous. 
This  conception  of  the  family  embraces  the  acacias,  sensitive- 
plants  or  mimosas,  partridge-peas,  sennas,  and  kramerias,  with 
the  common  garden  pea  and  bean;  but  this  enlarged  group  most 
present-day  taxonomists  prefer  to  regard  as  an  order,  rather  than 
family,  and,  as  such,  term  it  Fabales,  or  Leguminales. 

As  a  cultivated  forage  group  only  the  Fabaceae,  or  restricted 
pea,  bean,  or  pulse  family,  are  of  concern  here.  Nearly  all  these 
plants  have  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria  living  symbiotically  on  their 
roots  and  hence  are  rich  in  proteids.  It  is  natural,  therefore, 
that,  generaUy  speaking,  this  group  is  highly  esteemed  by  stock- 
men because  of  the  exceptional  nutritive  qualities  of  many  of  the 
species. 

The  most  important  legumes  used  as  cultivated  pasture  plants 
are  the  true  clovers,  sweet  clover,  bur  clovers,  alfalfa  or  lucerne, 
cowpeas,  soybeans,  vetches,  velvet  bean,  and  Japan  clover. 

151 


152  PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED  NONGRASSLIKE  FORAGE  HERBS 

The  Clovers.  —  Stockmen  often  use  the  word  "  clover  "  to 
designate  various  herbaceous  plants  of  several  genera  of  the  pea 
family,  but  here  the  term  is  coniined  to  species  of  the  genus 
Trifolium.  About  275  species  of  clover  have  been  discovered, 
yet  not  more  than  about  half  a  dozen  are  extensively  cultivated 
in  the  United  States.  They  are  annual,  biennial,  and  perennial 
and  occur  most  abundantly  in  the  temperate  parts  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere.  Among  those  valuable  as  pasture  forage,  Alsike 
clover  and  white  clover  are  of  first  importance.  Of  less  pasture 
value  are  red  clover  {Trifolium  pratense)  and  crimson  clover 
(r.  incarnatum) ,  but  as  hay  plants  they  are  second  to  none. 

Alsike  or  Swedish  Clover.  —  Alsike  clover  {Trifolium  hybrid- 
um)  is  a  tall,  slender-stemmed,  long-lived  perennial,  similar  in 
habit  of  growth  to  red  clover,  except  that  the  stems  are  more 
slender  and  less  erect.  The  main  distinction  between  Alsike 
and  white  clover  is  that  the  white  clover  has  stolons  and  "  creeps  " 
along  the  ground.  The  Alsike  does  not  have  these  stolons  or 
rooting  stems  at  the  nodes  or  joints  of  the  stems;  it  is  erect  or 
ascending.  Alsike  also  has  large,  conspicuous  stipules  at  the 
base  of  the  leaf  stalks,  whereas  those  of  white  clover  are  small 
and  inconspicuous.  The  leaflets  of  Alsike  are  rounded  at  the 
apex,  and  those  of  white  clover  are  heart-shaped-notched  at  the 
apex  (Fig.  48).  Alsike  clover  has  long  been  cultivated  in  Sweden. 
The  earliest  attempts  to  grow  it  in  the  United  States  were  soon 
after  1839,  when  the  editors  of  the  New  Genesee  Farmer,  of 
Rochester,  New  York,  brought  some  seed  to  this  country  and 
distributed  it  to  the  readers  of  that  paper. ^ 

The  best  growth  is  obtained  in  cool  climates  on  moist  or 
moderately  wet  soils.  It  is  commonly  seeded  with  timothy  and 
red  clover,  but  sometimes  pure  stands  are  grown.  When  sown 
alone,  5  to  8  pounds  of  seed  should  be  used  to  the  acre.  Being 
long-lived  and  adapted  to  a  variety  of  soils,  Alsike  clover  is  com- 
monly used  in  pasture  mixtures.  The  leafage  is  relished  by  all 
classes  of  stock. 

1  Pieters,  A.  J.,  "Alsike  Clover."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  1151, 
p.  4,  1920. 


WHITE  CLOVER 


153 


White  Clover,  —  White  clover  (Trifolium  repens)  grows  wild 
throughout  the  temper- 
ate regions  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  It  appears  to  have 
been  introduced  into  the 
United  States  about  1747. 
Being  well  adapted  to  the 
greater  part  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  white 
clover  is  now  found  grow- 
ing along  roadsides,  in 
waste  places,  and  in  pas- 
tures almost  everywhere. 
White  clover  is  a  long-lived 
perennial  but  differs  from 
the  other  cultivated  clovers 
in  having  stolons.  This 
characteristic,  coupled  with 
its  high  palatability  and 
nutritive  qualities,  gives 
the  plant  remarkable  pas- 
ture value.  Its  rate  of 
spread  is  similar  to  that  of 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  a  good 
sod  usually  being  formed. 
The  growth  is  rapid  in 
warm  as  well  as  cool  cli- 
mates; but,  being  a  plant 
intermediate  in  moisture 
requirements,  it  is  not  well 
adapted  to  wet  or  acid  soils. 
Also  the  seed  habitsof  white 
clover  are  strong.  In  for- 
age mixtures  white  clover 
is  invaluable,  especially  on 
bluegrass     pasture.       For    fi«- 48.  -  alsike  clover  (m^um /,,6nv/««). 

pasture  or  lawn  mixtures  2  to  5  pounds  of  white  clover  should 


154  PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED  NONGRASSLIKE  FORAGE  HERBS 


Fig.  49.  —  SWEET   CLOVER    {Mdilolus  alba). 


BUR   CLOVERS 


155 


be  used  to  the  acre,  but  when  sown  alone  8  to  10  pounds  is 
satisfactory. 

Sweet  Clover.  —  Sweet  clover  {Melilotus  alba),  the  most  valu- 
able forage  species  of  the  genus,  is  an  erect,  branching  plant, 
3  to  8  feet  tall,  with  small  white  flowers  in  elongated  racemes 
(Fig.  49).  It  is  a  biennial  and  seldom  blossoms  the  first  year. 
The  plant  is  characterized  by  a  sweet  odor,  and  on  this  account 
has  been  given  the  common  name  "  sweet  clover."  It  is  a  native 
of  Europe  and  Asia  and  is  thought  to  have  been  introduced  into 
North  America  from  western  Asia  about  1739. 

This  species  is  widely  distributed  over  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  where,  along  roadsides  and  in  other  waste  places,  it 
grows  with  various  weeds.  Although  sweet  clover  is  not  un- 
commonly a  pest  in  cultivated  fields,  it  is  largely  used  as  a  pasture 
plant.  Sweet  clover  is  unusually  cold-enduring,  but  it  is  never- 
theless well  adapted  to  southern  climates. 

Except  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  of  cultivation  the 
growth  of  sweet  clover  is  somewhat  backward  the  first  season. 
The  second  year  growth  starts  early,  and  the  stand  usually 
reaches  full  height  in  two  to  three  months.  In  the  Northern 
States,  when  the  plant  is  cut  early  for  hay,  a  luxuriant  aftermath 
is  produced.  In  the  Southern  States  as  many  as  three  good  cut- 
tings are  obtained  in  a  season. 

The  seed  habits  of  sweet  clover  are  exceptionally  strong.  In 
most  regions  the  seed  is  sown  either  in  early  spring  or  in  the  fall, 
often  with  wheat  or  rye.  About  20  pounds  of  hulled  seed  is  sown 
to  the  acre. 

The  main  objection  to  the  use  of  sweet  clover  as  a  pasture  and 
hay  plant  is  its  bitter  taste.  At  first  most  foraging  animals 
refuse  to  feed  upon  it,  but  in  time  they  become  accustomed  to 
the  taste,  devour  the  leafage  and  tender  stems  with  rehsh,  and 
do  well  when  feeding  upon  it. 

Bur  Clovers.  —  Bur  clovers  (Medicago)  are  members  of  the 
same  genus  as  alfalfa.  They  are  primarily  adapted  to  regions 
of  mild,  moist  winters.  In  the  United  States  this  embraces  the 
cotton-growing  area  of  the  South  and  all  of  the  Pacific  coast 
west  of  the  Cascade  and  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 


156  PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED  NONGRASSLIKE  FORAGE  HERBS 


Two  species  of  bur  clover  are  common  in  the  United  States, 

namely,  toothed  medic, 
or  bur  clover  (Medico- 
go  hispida)  (Fig.  50),  a 
highly  valuable  plant 
in  CaUfornia  and  Ore- 
gon, and  spotted  or 
southern  bur  clover, 
known  to  botanists  as 
M.  Arahica. 

Spotted  bur  clover  is 
a  much  more  valuable 
plant  in  the  South  than 
is  toothed  bur  clover, 
especially  for  winter 
pasture,  as  it  usually 
grows  throughout  the 
entire  winter.  It  does 
especially  well  on  the 
sandy  soils  of  the 
piney  -  woods  region. 
Here  it  furnishes  good 
pasture  as  early  as 
January.  Because  of 
its  strong  seed  habits 
this  species  maintains 
itself  well  when  once 
established.  A  good 
combination  of  seed  for 
use  in  pasture  sowing 
is  spotted  bur  clover 
and  Bermudagrass,  for 
the  reason  that  the  bur 
clover  remains  succu- 
lent and  palatable 
throughout  the  winter, 

whereas  the  Bermudagrass  grows  only  during  the  warmer  part 

of  the  season. 


Fig.  so. 


■TOOTHED   MEDIC,  OR   BUR   CLOVER 

(Maticai',,)  hispida). 


ALFALFA,   OR   LUCERNE  157 

Toothed  bur  clover  grows  luxuriantly  on  the  Pacinc  coast, 
being  much  more  abundant  in  California  than  spotted  bur  clover. 
It  grows  on  all  types  of  soil,  but  loam  or  adobe  soils  are  the  best, 
even  though  they  may  be  somewhat  deficient  in  lime.  On  both 
pasture  and  cultivated  land  good  stands  are  often  obtained  with- 
out artificial  seeding.  Once  a  stand  is  established  it  is  main- 
tained indefinitely  if  the  burs  are  permitted  to  develop.  Both 
species  furnish  excellent  forage  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs. 
Usually  the  leafage  is  not  relished  by  horses  and  mules. 

Where  the  lands  do  not  become  seeded  naturally,  the  seeding 
should  be  done  in  the  fall,  preferably  just  before  the  autumn 
rains  begin.  About  15  pounds  of  the  hulled  seed  should  be  sown 
per  acre.  A  light  harrowing  is  the  best  method  of  covering  the 
seed. 

Alfalfa,  or  Lucerne.  —  Alfalfa  {Medicago  saliva)  is  thought  to 
be  the  oldest  cultivated  forage  plant.  Growing  naturally  in  the 
hot,  dry  regions  of  Persia  and  Asia  Minor,  it  yields  well  in  warm, 
dry  climates  of  the  United  States  but  does  not  do  well  in  humid 
regions.  In  the  far  West  it  is  without  doubt  the  most  important 
of  the  introduced  forage  plants.  There  are  several  varieties  of 
alfalfa,  but  the  blue-flowered  kinds  are  the  most  widely  culti- 
vated. 

It  is  the  general  practice  to  sow  alfalfa  pure,  though  sometimes 
a  nurse  crop  is  used.  Where  ample  moisture  is  available,  10  to 
15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  should  be  sown.  In  drier  regions  6  to 
8  pounds  is  sufficient.  The  seed  may  be  scattered  any  time  dur- 
ing spring  or  summer. 

As  hog  pasture,  alfalfa  is  second  to  none.  It  is  not  weU 
adapted  to  the  grazing  of  cattle  or  sheep  because  of  the  tendency 
to  cause  bloating.  Exception  to  this  general  statement  is  found 
in  the  arid  regions  where  bloating  is  practically  unknown.  The 
fact  that  alfalfa  causes  bloating  of  animals  in  one  region  and  not 
in  another  is  not  understood.  Bloating  is  most  troublesome  if  the 
animals  are  very  hungry  when  turned  on  the  alfalfa  pasture,  or  if 
they  graze  when  the  leafage  is  wet.  Alfalfa  pasture  should  never 
be  grazed  very  closely,  as  the  practice  destroys  the  buds  at  the 
crown  of  the  plant  and  causes  the  yield  to  decline  sharply. 


158  PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED  NONGRASSLIKE  TORAGK  HERBS 


Cowpeas.  —  Cowpeas  ( Vigna  Sinensis)  are  grown  more  widely 
in  the  cotton  region  than  any  other  leguminous  crop.  There 
are  several  varieties,  some  of  which  produce  long,  trailing  vines, 

without  tendrils;  but 
others  are  erect  and 
bushlike.  Some  vari- 
eties reach  maturity 
in  two  months,  and 
others  require  nearly 
six  months.  They  are 
adapted  to  all  types 
of  soil,  but  on  wet 
lands  they  do  not 
thrive.  The  leaves 
are  trifoliolate  and 
similar  in  appearance 
to  those  of  the  garden 
bean;  in  fact,  the  cow- 
pea  is  more  closely 
related  to  the  garden 
bean  than  to  the  gar- 
den pea  (Fig.  51). 
It  is  thought  that  the  first  cowpea  plants  were  introduced  from 
tropical  Africa,  where  various  wild  forms  abound.  The  plant 
is  believed  to  have  been  under  cultivation  for  more  than  2,000 
years.  Although  cultivated  in  the  United  States  for  nearly  a 
century,  until  recently  cowpeas  have  not  been  popular  in  the 
Northern  States.  They  are  not  of  great  importance  in  States 
where  alfalfa  or  red  clover  grows  well. 

Cowpeas  are  sown  broadcast  in  pure  stand,  or  in  rows  36  to 
48  inches  apart,  or  between  corn  rows,  or  with  certain  other 
widely  spaced  crops.  When  sown  alone  broadcast  i  to  2  bushels 
of  seed  per  acre  is  used;  when  planted  in  rows  3  or  4  feet  apart 
2  to  3  pecks  of  seed  per  acre  is  sufficient.  If  they  are  cut  for 
hay,  the  harvesting  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  earliest  pods 
become  yellow,  for  at  that  stage  the  vines  cure  well.  For  hay 
the  upright  varieties  should  be  sown,  but  for  pasture  any  of  the 


Fig.  si- 


iU.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.) 
GENERAL  VIEW  OF  A  FIELD  OF  COWPEAS 

(Vigna  Sinensis). 


VETCHES  159 

trailing  forms  are  satisfactory.  The  crop  may  be  used  to  advan- 
tage either  as  hay,  as  a  soiling  crop,  or  as  pasture. 

Soybeans.  —  Soybean  {Glycine  hispida) ,  an  annual  leguminous 
plant,  is  closely  related  to  the  cowpea  (Fig.  52),  and  has  been 
cultivated  in  this  country  for  about  a  century.  There  are  many 
varieties  and  forms,  such  as  those  with  erect  stems  and  few 
branches,  and  the  widely  branched  varieties  of  a  bushy  form  of 
growth. 

Soybeans  are  essentially  a  corn-belt  crop.  Although  the  area 
of  their  culture  in  the  United  States  is  largely  coextensive  with 
that  of  cowpeas,  they  may  profitably  be  grown  farther  north 
than  cowpeas.  Soybeans  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  cow- 
peas,  but  they  have  several  advantages  over  the  latter.  They 
are  erect  and  without  runners;  the  seed  does  not  shell  out  readily; 
the  seed  crop  is  larger;  and  the  leafage  remains  palatable  longer 
after  falling  to  the  ground.  Soybeans  are  adapted  to  a  wide 
variety  of  soils  and  are  not  readily  injured  either  by  drought  or 
by  abundant  moisture. 

The  time  of  planting  is  about  the  same  as  for  corn.  In  the 
cotton  region  planting  any  time  between  April  and  June  gives 
good  results.  When  the  seed  is  drilled  in  rows  24  to  36  inches 
apart,  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  bushel  of  seed  should  be 
used  to  the  acre.  Soybeans  are  highly  nutritious;  they  have 
the  highest  protein  content  of  any  legume  that  has  been  analyzed, 
with  the  single  exception  of  the  peanut.  The  plant  is  valuable 
both  for  pasture  and  hay. 

Vetches.  —  Vetches  ( Vicia)  are  mostly  slender,  climbing 
plants  bearing  tendrils  at  the  ends  of  the  leaves  (Fig.  53).  Ap- 
proximately 125  species  have  been  described,  about  24  of  which 
are  native  to  the  United  States.  Of  the  various  species  of  culti- 
vated vetches,  three  —  hairy  or  sand  vetch  {Vicia  villosa),  com- 
mon or  spring  vetch  ( V.  saliva) ,  and  the  narrow-leaved  or  Augusta 
vetch  ( V.  anguslifolia) ,  all  of  which  are  annuals  —  are  extensively 
cultivated. 


l6o    PRINCIP.\L  INTRODUCED  NONGR.\SSLIKE  FORAGE  HERBS 


Fig.  52.  —  SOYBEAN   (Glycine  hispida). 


VETCHES 


l6l 


Fig.  S3.  — hairy  VETCH   iVicia  villosa) 


l62  PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED  NONGRASSLIKE  FORAGE  HERBS 


Hairy  vetch  is  readily  recognized  by  the  dense  gray  hairs  which 
occur  on  all  parts  of  the  plant,  and  by  the  crowded  clusters  of 
slender,  deep-blue  flowers.  This  species  is  well  adapted  to  both 
warm  and  cold  climates,  seldom  winter-killing  even  in  southern 


Fig.  54-  —  X'ELVET  BEAN   (Mucuna  uiUis)  IN  FUI-L   POD. 

Canada.     In  the  South  the  vetches  do  well  in  the  black  prairie 
alluvial  regions,  where  they  are  often  grown  with  a  nurse  crop, 


VELVET  BEAN  163 

such  as  winter  oats  or  rye.  About  30  pounds  of  vetch  seed  to 
one  bushel  of  grain  is  sown  to  the  acre.  When  sown  alone  be- 
tween 50  and  60  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  used.  It  is  a  some- 
what drought-enduring  plant  and  does  well  on  sandy  or  clay- 
loam  soils. 

As  stock  feed,  either  as  winter  pasture  or  as  hay,  hairy  vetch 
ranks  high,  the  leafage  being  readily  consumed  by  all  classes  of 
stock.  It  also  makes  a  satisfactory  cover  crop  and  is  valuable 
in  improving  and  maintaining  soil  fertility. 

Common  or  spring  vetch  is  a  viny  annual,  which  grows  close 
to  the  ground.  The  cultural  requirements  of  common  vetch 
are  the  same  as  those  of  hairy  vetch.  Narrow-leaved  vetch,  as 
well  as  the  common  and  hairy  vetches,  has  been  used  considerably 
in  the  cotton  region. 

Velvet  Bean.  —  Velvet  bean  (Mucuna  utilis)  is  a  native  of 
India  and  is  believed  to  have  been  introduced  into  this  country 
about  1875.  Its  growth  is  confined  to  the  South,  the  area  of 
successful  cultivation  being  practically  the  same  as  for  the  culti- 
vation of  cotton  east  of  Texas.  It  is  an  annual  twining  legume 
that  grows  with  unusual  vigor;  but,  because  it  matures  late,  it 
is  confined  to  a  warm  climate  (Fig.  54).  Along  the  Gulf  coast,  in 
Atlantic  coast  regions,  and  as  far  north  as  the  Coastal  Plain  of 
North  Carolina,  velvet  bean  is  an  important  constituent  of  the 
field  crops.  It  is  also  an  important  crop  plant  in  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  coastal  Mexico,  and  other  tropical  countries.  Some 
species  are  dwarfed  and  bushlike  in  growth,  but  others  make 
vines  50  feet  or  more  in  length.  There  are  several  varieties  of 
velvet  bean.  Two  somewhat  distinct  types  of  pods  are  produced 
—  those  covered  with  dense,  black,  velvety  hairs,  and  those 
whose  hairs  are  short,  white,  or  gray.  The  pods  vary  in  length 
from  2  to  6  inches. 

The  cultural  methods  are  practically  the  same  for  all  varieties. 
The  rate  of  seeding  is  determined  by  the  use  to  be  made  of  the 
crop.  When  planted  with  corn  to  be  harvested  for  its  grain. 
2  to  3  quarts  of  seed  per  acre  is  sufficient;  but,  if  a  heavy  crop 
of  beans  is  desired,  and  the  corn  plants  are  to  be  used  chiefly  as 
support  for  the  vines,  twice  as  much  seed  should  be  sown.     If 


164  PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED  NONGRASSLIKE  EORAGi:  HERBS 

the  fullest  possible  stand  is  desired,  as  for  green  manure,  a  half- 
bushel  or  more  of  seed  should  be  used. 

Velvet  bean  furnishes  excellent  forage  for  cattle  and  hogs  in 
autumn  and  winter.  The  plant  is  not  readily  injured  by  expos- 
ure and  hence  furnishes  much  desirable  feed  until  early  spring. 
No  more  than  half  an  acre  of  good  cover  is  required  to  support  a 
cow  for  a  100-day  period  during  the  winter.  This  is  equivalent 
to  the  production  of  about  300  pounds  of  beef  per  acre.  The 
pods  and  seed  are  often  gathered  and  ground  into  meal  for  feed- 
ing to  cattle  and  hogs. 

Japan  Clover.  —  Japan  clover  {Lespedeza  slriala)  is  a  native 
of  eastern  Asia  and  was  introduced  into  this  country  about  1840. 
It  is  a  highly  valuable  plant  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
United  States.  As  it  is  adapted  to  practically  all  types  of  soil  and 
grazing  conditions,  its  value  is  difficult  to  estimate.  Although 
it  is  an  annual  plant,  it  produces  sufficient  seed,  even  under 
adverse  conditions,  to  reseed  itself,  and  hence  it  is  for  practical 
purposes  a  perennial  in  permanency.  Being  a  legume,  it  is  rich 
in  protein.  All  classes  of  stock  devour  the  plant  with  gusto  and 
do  exceedingly  well  upon  it. 

As  it  is  valuable  for  soil  improvement,  and  an  excellent  forage 
and  hay  plant,  its  growth  should  be  widely  extended  in  prac- 
tically all  the  pastures  of  the  South,  especially  the  cut-over  pine 
lands  of  the  Coastal  Plain.  On  the  rich  bottom  lands  of  the 
Gulf  States  it  produces  a  large  amount  of  good  hay. 

In  planting,  the  seed  bed  should  be  well  prepared.  The  seed, 
of  which  15  pounds  should  be  sown  to  the  acre,  may  best  be  broad- 
casted over  the  oat  field,  after  which  the  seed  of  both  should  be 
harrowed  in  lightly.  The  lespedeza  does  not  make  much  growth 
until  the  oats  are  harvested.  A  large  proportion  of  the  seed  of 
this  plant  is  harvested  in  Louisiana  and  Mississippi. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  grazing  capacity  of  great  stretches  of 
artificially  established  pastures  in  the  South  has  been  increased  at 
least  25  per  cent  by  the  use  of  lespedeza.  Unlike  many  legumi- 
nous plants,  it  does  not  cause  animals  to  bloat. 

Good  Germination  and  Purity  of  Seed  Essential.  —  It  is  not 
to  be  expected  that  good  forage  or  other  crops  can  be  grown 


GOOD   GERMIXATION  AND  PURITY  OF  SEED  ESSENTIAL  165 

unless  seed  of  high  viability  is  used.  The  soil,  the  seed  bed,  and 
the  conditions  of  growth  may  be  ideal;  yet  all  these  are  as  naught 
if  poor  seed  is  planted.  Good  seed  should  be  true  to  name 
and  relatively  free  from  impurities  of  all  kinds;  furthermore 
it  should  show  a  high  percentage  of  vigorous  germination. 

The  seed  of  grasses,  legumes,  and  other  forage  plants  is  often 
poor.  Especially  is  this  true  of  such  important  pasture  plants  as 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  Hungarian  bromegrass,  red  clover,  and 
Alsike  clover.  The  seed  of  grasses,  too,  especially  if  purchased 
in  a  mixture,  is  often  adulterated  with  cheaper  or  inferior  kinds 
of  seed. 

The  germination  and  purity  of  the  seed  to  be  sown  should  be 
determined  before  planting.  If  it  is  not  possible  or  convenient 
to  ascertain  the  value  of  the  seed,  through  the  State  Experiment 
Station  or  some  such  pubHc-service  organization,  it  may  be 
tested  in  some  simple  homemade  germinator,  of  which  there  are 
many  kinds. 

A  satisfactory  germination  chamber  may  be  made  by  using 
two  dinner  plates.  Two  or  three  layers  of  blotting  paper  or  a 
half-inch  of  sand  should  be  placed  in  the  one  plate,  covered  by 
a  piece  of  heavy  cloth.  When  the  sand  and  cloth  have  been 
saturated  with  water  as  pure  as  can  be  obtained,  100  seeds  should 
be  placed  on  the  cloth,  and  the  second  plate  inverted  over  the 
first,  care  being  taken  that  the  edges  fit  so  closely  as  practically 
to  prevent  evaporation.  Box,  "  rag  doll,"  and  various  other 
types  of  makeshift  germinators  are  usually  satisfactory.  The 
seed  should  be  examined  every  few  days  and  the  results  noted. 
Care  must  be  taken  at  all  times  during  the  test  to  keep  the  seed 
moist  and  at  a  proper  temperature  for  growth. 

To  make  sure  of  obtaining  a  supply  of  good  and  genuine  seed 
the  four  following  precautions  should  be  observed: 

1.  Require  from  the  seed  agent,  at  the  time  of  purchase,  a 
guarantee  of  purity,  germination  strength,  and  identity. 

2.  Insist  that  each  species  purchased  be  suppKed  separately, 
and  always  avoid  the  acceptance  of  seed  mixtures. 

3.  Purchase  the  seed  with  the  understanding  that  if,  when 


l66      PRINCIPAL  INTRODUCED   NONGRASSLTKE   FORAGE   HERBS 

tested,  it  fails  to  come  up  to  the  requirements,  it  is  to  be  returned 
with  no  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  buyer. 

4.  Obtain  the  seed  far  enough  in  advance  of  the  seeding  time 
to  ascertain  the  facts  concerning  its  value. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  (a)  What  clovers  are  especially  valuable  for  pasture?  (b)  Which  of 
these  will  probably  withstand  the  heaviest  grazing?    Why? 

2.  What  are  the  objections,  if  any,  to  the  use  of  sweet  clover  as  a  pasture 
and  hay  plant? 

3.  (a)  To  what  regions  are  the  bur  clovers  adapted?  (b)  How  many 
species  of  bur  clover  occur  commonly  in  the  United  States?  (c)  On  what 
type  of  soil  does  toothed  medic,  or  bur  clover,  grow  best?  (d)  Where  the  lands 
are  not  seeded  naturally,  how  much  seed  of  toothed  bur  clover  should  be  sown 
to  the  acre? 

4.  (a)  Where  are  cowpeas  grown  most  extensively  in  this  country? 
(b)  How  do  the  various  varieties  of  cowpeas  differ  in  habit  of  growth?  Is  the 
same  form  equally  well  suited  for  the  production  of  hay  and  for  pasturage? 
If  not,  why?  (c)  How  are  cowpeas  usually  sown,  and  how  much  seed  is  used 
per  acre? 

5.  (a)  In  what  States  are  soybeans  grown  extensively?  (b)  Compare  the 
uses  of  soybeans  with  those  of  cowpeas.  (c)  When  should  soybeans  be  planted, 
how  is  the  seeding  done,  and  how  much  seed  is  sown  to  the  acre? 

6.  (a)  How  many  species  of  vetch  are  commonly  grown?  (b)  Are  they 
annual  or  perennial  plants?  (c)  How  much  seed  of  hairy  vetch  should  be 
sown  to  the  acre  (i)  when  seeded  with  small  grain,  and  (2)  when  sown  alone? 
id)  Discuss  the  value  of  the  vetches  as  pasture  forage  and  as  hay. 

7.  (o)  In  what  region  of  the  United  States  is  velvet  bean  successfully 
grown?  (b)  Discuss  the  cultural  methods,  (c)  Discuss  the  value  of  velvet 
bean  as  a  forage  and  hay  plant. 

8.  (a)  When  was  Japan  clover,  or  lespedeza,  introduced  into  this  country? 
(b)  To  what  region  is  Japan  clover  best  adapted?  (c)  Discuss  the  cultural 
methods  best  suited  to  Japan  clover,  (d)  Discuss  the  value  of  lespedeza  as  a 
forage  plant. 

9.  (a)  What  are  the  requirements  of  "good"  seed?  (b)  How  would  you 
determine  the  degree  of  purity  of  the  seed  of  grasses,  clovers,  and  the  like? 

10.  Describe  some  simple  device  for  determining  seed  germination. 

11.  What  precautions  in  general  should  be  taken  to  obtain  good,  genuine 
seed? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Carrier,  Lyman.     Lespedeza  as  a  Forage  Crop.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 
Farmers  Bui.  1143,  1920. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  167 

CoBURN,  F.  D.     The  Book  of  Alfalfa.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1906. 
Kephart,  L.  W.     Growing  Crimson  Clover.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers 

Bui.  1142,  1920. 
Livingston,  George.     Field  Crop  Production.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y., 

1914. 
McKee,  Roland.     Australian  Saltbush.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  617, 

1919. 
Button  Clover.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  730,  1916. 
Purple  Vetch.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  967,  191 8. 
McKee,  Roland,  and  Ricker,  P.  L.     Nonperennial  Medicagos.     U.  S. 

Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  267,  1913. 
Morse,  W.  J.     Cowpeas:    Culture  and  Varieties.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 

Farmers  Bui.  1148,  1920. 
Cowpeas:   Utilization.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  1153,  1920. 
Oakley,  R.  A.,  and  Westover,  H.  L.     Commercial  Varieties  of  Alfalfa. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  757,  1916. 
Pieters,  a.  J.      Alsike  Clover.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  1151, 

1920. 
Piper,  C.  V.     Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture.     The  Macmillan  Co., 

N.  Y.,  1914. 
Peper,  C.  v.,  McKee,  Roland,  and  Hillman,  F.  H.     Vetches.     U.  S. 

Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  515,  revised  1920. 
Shaw,  Thomas.     Clovers  and  How  to  Grow  Them.     Orange  Judd  Co., 

N.  Y.,  1906. 
Tracy,  S.  M.     Forage  for  the  Cotton  Belt.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers 

Bui.  II 25,  revised  1920. 
Voorhees,    Edward  B.     Forage   Crops  for  Soiling,  Hay,  and   Pasture. 

The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1907. 
Wilson,  A.  D.,  and  Warburton,  C.  W.     Field  Crops.     Webb  Pub.  Co., 

St.  Paul,  Minn    I'^iS  (revised  edition). 


PART  THREE 
RANGE    AND    PASTURE    PROTECTION 


CHAPTER  IX 
CONTROL    OF    EROSION    ON    RANGE    AND    PASTURE 

Nearly  one-half  of  the  United  States  —  the  hilly  half  —  is 
being  seriously  impaired  by  runaway  waters.  In  a  relatively 
short  time  —  a  mere  moment  of  time  historically  considered  — 
much  of  the  productive  portion  of  hillside  soils  has  been  borne 
along  the  "  line  of  least  resistance."  In  our  eagerness  to  work 
nature  overtime  we  have  destroyed  the  plant  cover  and  pre- 
pared the  soil  for  its  voyage.  The  rain  furnished  the  trans- 
portation. 

Remove  the  upper  dark  layer  of  humus  soil,  and  you  have 
done  the  same  thing  as  when  you  skim  off  the  rich  film  which 
has  accumulated  over  the  surface  of  a  pan  of  milk;  you  have 
taken  the  cream,  the  rich,  productive  part  of  the  land,  the  part 
you  pay  for  when  you  buy  the  farm. 

Erosion  is  one  of  the  most  serious  dangers  that  threaten  the 
farms  and  pastures  of  the  Nation.  On  the  other  hand,  a  good 
plant  cover,  especially  on  the  steep  hillsides,  would  be  the 
safest  possible  insurance  against  erosion  and  consequent  dam- 
age. And  what  would  such  insurance  mean?  It  would  mean 
that  approximately  one-half  of  the  population  of  the  United 
States  would  be  more  prosperous;  that  the  productivity  of 
about  797,000,000  acres  of  farm  land  in  this  country  —  not  to 
mention  the  native  pasture  and  forest  lands  —  with  a  value  of 
about  $28,500,000,000,  would  gradually  increase  instead  of 
declining.  Erosion,  the  most  disturbing  single  factor  in  the 
development  of  the  Nation's  lands,  is  fortunately  in  a  large 
measure  under  the  control  of  man.  For  this  reason  the  prin- 
ciples underlying  its  control  are  deserving  of  careful  consider- 
ation. 

Migration  of  Rainfall.  —  Everyone  who  has  been  in  a  dense 
forest  or  where  other  types  of  vegetation  cover  the  ground, 


172         CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON   RANGE   AND   PASTURE 

knows  how  thoroughly  this  ground  cover  protects  the  soil  and 
retards  or  stores  the  water.  The  force  of  the  falling  rain  and 
the  downward  pull  exerted  by  gravity  after  the  water  reaches 
the  ground  are  to  a  certain  extent  overcome  by  the  vegetation 
and  the  litter  on  the  surface.  When  the  fallen  rain  finally  reaches 
the  soil,  a  part  of  the  water  is  soaked  up  by  nature's  "  sponge," 
a  humus  layer  so  rich  in  organic  matter  that  it  will  hold  several 
times  its  own  weight  in  water.  The  water  so  held  is  liberated 
gradually,  and  the  streams  into  which  this  clear,  pure  water 
drains  vary  but  little  in  their  flow  the  season  through.  Such 
streams  furnish  the  best  water  supply  for  our  most  valuable 
irrigated  lands. 

Every  drop  of  rain  that  falls  on  more  or  less  exposed  soil, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  the  power  of  removing  soil  particles,  and 
with  them  the  soluble  salts  essential  to  plant  growth.  If  the 
vegetative  cover  on  a  drainage  area  has  been  largely  destroyed, 
the  washing  off  of  the  surface  soil  may  remove  far  more  decom- 
posed vegetable  matter  and  soluble  plant  food  in  a  single  season 
—  indeed  during  one  violent  storm  —  than  would  be  deposited 
by  the  decay  of  the  vegetation  in  many  years.  More  than  this, 
the  resulting  erosion,  with  its  rush  of  water  and  debris,  frequently 
ruins  the  lands  where  the  debris  is  deposited;  and  often  roads, 
trails,  power  plants,  and  other  improvements  are  destroyed. 
In  many  localities  the  loss  of  property  from  this  source  has  been 
appalling. 

Damage  by  Erosion.  —  The  farmer-stockman  who  lives  in 
the  more  arid  parts  of  the  far  West  probably  realizes  more 
keenly  than  those  who  enjoy  an  abundance  of  rainfall  that 
prosperity  depends  largely  upon  an  adequate  water  supply  for 
the  production  of  good  crops.  Water,  ample  water,  and  always 
more  water  is  the  real  necessity  of  the  West  —  the  essential 
factor  in  making  the  lands  pay  a  reasonable  dividend.  It  is 
an  interesting  fact  that  the  prosperity  enjoyed  from  irrigated 
lands  in  the  West  is  often  directly  traceable  to  the  condition  of 
the  enormous  drainage  areas,  or  watersheds,  of  the  National 
Forests.  The  intimate  relation  that  exists  between  the  National 
Forests  and  a  sustained  streamflow  for  irrigation  in  the  West  is 


DAMAGE  BY  EROSION 


173 


generally  recognized  by  the  stockmen.  This  is  not  surprising 
when  it  is  recalled  that  not  less  than  85  per  cent  of  the  water 
used  for  irrigating  the  3,200,000  acres  of  western  farm  lands  has 
its  origin  in  the  mountains  of  the  National  Forests.  Of  about 
156,000,000  acres  within  the  boundaries  of  the  National  Forests 
in  192 1,  practically  all  of  which  contributes  in  one  way  or  an- 
other to  agriculture,  approximately  8,000,000  acres  lie  above  the 
altitude  of  forest  growth.  Of  this  acreage  about  4,200,000 
acres  are  barren;  about  1,500,000  acres  support  a  cover  of  brush; 
and  the  remaining  2,300,000  acres  are  grassland.  The  value  of 
the  lands  at  these  dizzy  heights  lies  chiefly  in  their  efficiency  as 
watersheds,  that  is,  in  the  water  which  they  contribute  for 
irrigation.  Because  of  the  ruggedness  of  their  surface  and 
their  economic  relation  to  the  adjoining  communities  and  to 
agriculture  generally,  no  better  opportunity  is  offered  for  con- 
sidering the  erosion  problem  than  that  afforded  on  the  National 
Forests.  Furthermore,  the  principles  developed  in  the  con- 
trol of  erosion  on  these  lands  are  applicable  to  farm  and  pasture 
lands  generally. 

On  the  National  Forests,  as  elsewhere,  the  greatest  damage 
from  erosion  occurs  on  the  lands  that  have  been  badly  over- 
grazed and  whose  ground  cover  has  been  destroyed  or  seriously 
impaired.  After  the  breaking  up  of  the  vegetative  cover  caused 
by  overstocking  during  the  happy-go-lucky  grazing  period, 
many  streams  that  had  originally  a  steady,  yearlong  flow  and 
teemed  with  trout  became  treacherous  channels  with  inter- 
mittent flow  through  which  plunged  the  water  from  rainstorms. 
Most  of  the  streams  swelled  suddenly  and  subsided  as  quickly 
according  to  the  size  and  frequency  of  the  storms;  and  many 
such  flows  carried  so  much  sediment  that  fish  and  similar  life 
could  not  exist  in  the  water. 

The  damage  is  not  confined  to  the  decrease  in  the  forage 
yield  of  the  lands  eroded  or  to  the  silting  over  of  adjoining 
agricultural  lands  to  which  the  torrential  floods  carried  the 
debris;  the  efiiciency  of  the  watershed  in  maintaining  a  per- 
manent flow  of  irrigation  water  is  also  greatly  decreased. 

Many  typical  examples  of  the  damage  of  erosion  that  have 


174         CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON   RANGE  AND  PASTURE 

come  under  the  observation  of  the  author  might  be  cited,  but 
one  will  suffice.  The  incident  to  be  related  occurred  on  the 
Manti  Forest  in  central  Utah,  on  July  28,  191 2.  The  rainstorm 
was  confined  to  an  overgrazed  belt  of  about  2  miles  between  the 
elevations  of  9,000  and  10,500  feet.  There  was  no  rain  in  the 
valley  or  on  the  mountain  below  approximately  8,000  feet. 
The  fall  of  .41  of  an  inch  of  rain  continued  intermittently  for  a 
period  of  two  hours,  but  at  no  time  with  great  violence.  A 
flood  of  sufficient  force  developed  to  reach  to  the  city  of  Ephraim, 
10  miles  below,  covering  the  streets  and  some  farm  land,  and 
fining  the  basements  of  many  buildings  with  mud  and  debris. 
Laden  with  silt,  logs,  vegetable  matter,  and  even  with  rocks, 
some  of  which  contained  as  much  as  30  cubic  feet  of  material, 
the  flood  destroyed  wagon  roads,  trails,  and  irrigation  ditches 
(Fig.  55)- 

The  incalculable  damage  caused  by  the  concentration  of 
waters  in  the  Mississippi  River  at  various  times  is  famihar  to 
everyone.  The  magnitude  of  the  damage  that  resulted  from  the 
overflow  and  devastation  of  the  fertile  bottom  lands  baffles 
comprehension.  The  losses  on  some  of  the  river  branches  have 
been  computed,  however,  and  they  serve  to  show  how  serious  is 
the  situation. 

From  March  15,  1907,  to  March  20,  1908,  barely  more  than 
a  year,  three  floods  of  the  Ohio  River  caused  a  direct  loss  at 
Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  of  about  $6,500,000.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  average  annual  damage  caused  by  floods  of  the  Ohio 
River  and  its  tributaries  is  not  less  than  $50,000,000;  yet  it  is 
believed  that  there  is  not  a  stream  emptying  into  the  Ohio 
River  whose  flow  could  not  be  regulated  by  reestablishing  and 
preserving  the  vegetative  cover  on  the  contributing  water- 
sheds. 

Innumerable  instances  of  the  appaUing  damage  caused  by 
erosion  could  be  related;  but  the  results  when  erosion  is  per- 
mitted free  play  are,  ultimately,  the  same  everywhere  —  the 
ruination  of  soil  fertility  and  the  destruction  of  practically  all 
property  found  in  the  path  of  the  deluge. 


KINDS  OF   EROSION  175 

KINDS  OF  EROSION. 
Erosion  may  be  considered  in  four  aspects  —  gully  erosion, 
sheet  erosion,   landslides,   and   river-bottom   erosion.     Hillside 
erosion  is  sometimes  included  as  a  distinct  type,  but  such  ero- 


FiG.  ss-  —  A   WAGON   ROAD    ALONG   A    STREAM    UNDERMINED    DURING    A 
TORRENTIAL   FLOOD. 
On  account  of  the  poor  plant  cover  there  is  an  erratic  run-off  of  fallen  rain  after  nearly  every  rain 
storm.     The  stream  beds  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  where  the  force  of  the  water  is  greatest, 
are  gullied  out,  and  the  banks  cave  in.    Most  of  the  loosened  silt  and  rocks  is  deposited  in 
the  valley  by  subsequent  storms. 

sion  is  usually  either  a  form  of  sheet  erosion  or  of  gullying,  or  a 
combination  of  both. 


176         CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON   RANGE  AND   PASTURE 

Gully  Erosion.  —  On  lands  which  are  somewhat  steep  and 
roUing.  well-defined  trench  channels  are  readily  formed  where 
the  plant  cover  has  been  destroyed.  A  large  portion  of  the 
water  from  heavy  rains  finds  its  way  into  the  channels,  and 
the  water,  rushing  rapidly  down,  carries  away  much  of  the 
loose  soil  over  which  it  passes.  Gully  erosion  is  much  more 
noticeable  than  sheet  erosion  and  usually  progresses  more  rap- 
idly. Occasionally  numerous  small,  more  or  less  parallel  gul- 
lies are  formed  which  are  popularly  known  as  "  shoestring 
guUies."  They  vary  in  form  from  sharp-bottomed  V-shaped 
cuts  with  steep  sides  to  broad  depressions  with  gently  rounded 
sides. 

Sheet  Erosion.  —  Sheet  erosion  is  marked  by  a  more  or  less 
uniform  washing  away  of  the  soil  over  the  surface  as  a  whole. 
The  water  that  is  not  taken  up  by  the  soil  runs  downward  more 
or  less  uniformly  over  the  land.  With  a  heavy  rainfall  the  flow 
down  the  slope  may  remove  much  of  the  surface  soil.  This 
form  of  erosion  not  uncommonly  causes  very  serious  losses  of 
soil  fertility  and  is  difficult  to  control.  Sheet  erosion,  however, 
is  not  confined  to  the  action  of  water  alone,  but  is  caused  by 
wind  as  well,  a  stiff  wind  often  depositing  considerable  loose 
soil  at  the  base  of  the  slope. 

Landslides.  —  The  slipping  down  of  surface  soil,  usually  of 
a  large  solid  mass,  is  known  as  landslide  erosion.  Such  shdes 
occur  as  a  rule  where  the  soil  rests  on  a  smooth  wet  substratum. 
The  soil  is  usually  saturated  with  water  and  slips  ofT  suddenly 
from  the  underlying  rock  formation.  Fares  which  destroy  the 
deeply  ramifying  roots  that  bind  the  surface  soil  to  the  sub- 
soil contribute  to  the  action  of  landshdes.  Landslides  usually  are 
confined  to  small  areas  and,  except  in  restricted  localities,  are 
seldom  an  important  factor  in  the  destruction  of  soil  fertility. 

River-Bottom  Erosion.  —  Much  highly  valuable  valley  land 
has  been  destroyed  by  the  wearing  away  of  the  river  banks  or 
by  the  formation  of  new  channels.  The  historic  Mississippi 
floods  of  almost  annual  occurrence  afford  excellent  examples  of 
this  form  of  destructive  erosion.  The  enormous  amount  of 
debris  carried  down  by  the  swollen  river  may  be  deposited  in 


STEEPNESS  OF  SLOPE  1 77 

the  lower  portions  and  fill  up  the  channels.  The  water  may 
overflow  for  a  time  and  then  take  a  new  course.  The  prevention 
of  such  erosion  lies  chiefly  in  the  proper  reestablishment  and 
preservation  of  the  plant  cover  on  watersheds  where  the  flow 
originates. 

FACTORS  INFLUENCING  EROSION 

Several  factors  contribute  to  the  action  of  erosion,  the  chief 
of  which  are  (i)  steepness  of  slope  (topography),  (2)  type  of 
soil,  (3)  rainfall,  (4)  melting  snow,  (5)  winds,  and  (6)  vegetative 
cover. 

That  he  might  ascertain  the  effect  of  the  more  important 
of  these  factors  and  be  able  to  suggest  rational  means  of  pre- 
venting and  controlhng  erosion,  the  author  initiated  in  191 2 
a  special  erosion  study  at  the  Great  Basin  Grazing  Experiment 
Station,  in  the  Wasatch  Mountains  of  central  Utah.^  Two 
areas  as  nearly  similar  as  possible  in  topography,  soil,  cHmatic 
conditions,  and  vegetation  were  selected.  The  areas  chosen 
were  located  at  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet  and  were  on  the 
same  slope.  The  soil  was  of  Hmestone  origin  and  varied  in 
depth  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet.  The  area  known  as  A , 
however,  had  a  somewhat  steeper  slope  than  the  area  designated 
as  B,  and  the  vegetative  cover  was  less  dense  than  on  the 
latter. 

Steepness  of  Slope.  —  The  steepness  of  the  slope  of  the  lands 
is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  affecting  the  occurrence  of 
erosion.  Under  the  influence  of  a  given  rainstorm  lands  having 
a  steep  slope  and  a  particular  kind  of  plant  cover  will  undergo 
much  more  erosion  than  lands  of  the  same  soil  type  and  plant 
cover  that  have  less  slope.  Thus,  if  the  estabhshed  formula 
is  appHed,  namely,  that  the  transporting  power  of  water  varies 
directly  as  the  sixth  power  of  its  velocity,  it  is  evident  that,  if 
the  velocity  of  a  flow  is  increased  two  times,  its  transporting 
power  is  increased  64  times.  Then,  too,  the  larger  the  flow  the 
greater  is  the  velocity  of  that  flow. 

1  Sampson,  Arthur  W  ,  and  Weyl,  Leon  H.,  "Range  Preservation  and  its  Re- 
lation to  Erosion  Control  on  Western  Grazing  Lands."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui. 
675,  1918. 


178        CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON  RANGE  AND   PASTURE 

Type  of  Soil.  —  The  character  of  the  soil  itself  often  de- 
termines to  a  considerable  extent  the  degree  of  erosion.  The 
factors  determining  the  extent  to  which  a  given  soil  type  may 
erode  are  texture,  structure,  amount  of  organic  matter,  pore 
space,  and  tenacity. 

Texture.  —  Coarse-textured  soils,  that  is,  those  having  large- 
sized  particles  like  sand,  are  able  to  absorb  a  large  amount  of 
rainfall.  Accordingly,  little  water,  except  on  very  steep  slopes, 
washes  over  the  surface  of  such  lands,  and  hence  serious  erosion 
seldom  occurs.  Soils  like  clay  that  have  small-sized  par- 
ticles hold  much  less  fallen  rain  than  do  soils  of  coarse  tex- 
ture. 

Structure.  —  The  particular  arrangement  of  the  particles  of 
soil  greatly  influences  the  amount  of  water  which  is  absorbed. 
When  the  particles  are  pressed  closely  together,  as  in  heavily 
packed  soils,  the  spaces  between  the  particles  are  so  small  that 
water  can  be  absorbed  but  slowly.  Thus  a  large  portion  of  the 
water  is  carried  over  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  causes  erosion. 
The  structure  of  any  soil  is  greatly  modified  by  the  amount  of 
vegetation  which  occurs  upon  it,  and,  to  be  sure,  by  the  type 
of  farm  operation. 

Organic  Matter.  —  Organic  matter  invariably  increases  the 
power  of  soils  to  absorb  and  retain  moisture.  Accordingly,  the 
amount  of  organic  matter  plays  an  important  part  in  the  pre- 
vention of  erosion  both  of  heavy  and  of  light  soils. 

Pore  Space.  —  The  amount  of  pore  space  and  the  size  of  the 
individual  pore  spaces  have  an  important  part  in  determining 
the  amount  of  water  taken  up  by  a  soil  and  the  rate  at  which  it 
is  absorbed.  Both  the  amount  of  water  absorbed  and  the  rate 
of  its  absorption  are  affected  by  the  size  of  the  particles,  their 
arrangement,  and  the  amount  of  organic  matter  present. 

Tenacity.  —  The  rate  at  which  the  stickiness  or  maximum 
tenacity  of  a  soO  is  reached  determines  to  a  considerable  extent 
the  erosion  that  may  take  place.  The  amount  of  organic  matter, 
the  degree  of  compactness,  and  the  particular  type  of  soil  greatly 
influence  the  ability  of  a  soil  to  absorb  moisture,  and  hence  the 
extent  to  which  the  soil  may  erode.     Any  method  of  building 


RAINFALL  179 

up  the  soil  so  as  to  increase  its  ability  to  absorb  and  retain  mois- 
ture, and  at  the  same  time  decrease  its  stickiness,  helps  to  lessen 
its  tendency  to  erode.  In  general,  the  greater  the  tenacity  of  a 
soil  the  less  likely  is  erosion  to  occur. 

Rainfall.  —  The  amount  and  distribution  of  the  rainfall 
constitute  an  important  factor  in  determining  the  occurrence  of 
erosion.  In  order  that  no  erosion  may  occur,  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  water  faUing  on  the  land  must  be  absorbed  or  held 
back  by  the  soil,  temporarily  at  least.  As  pointed  out,  the 
movement  of  the  unabsorbed  water  over  the  soil's  surface  is 
largely  controlled  by  the  vegetative  cover,  and,  of  course,  on 
plowed  fields  by  the  character  of  the  tillage  and  sometimes  by 
terraces. 

In  the  study  of  the  effect  of  rainstorms  of  varying  intensity 
on  the  specially  selected  areas  in  the  Wasatch  Mountains  of 
Utah,^  twenty-six  rain  storms  occurred  in  a  single  season  dis- 
tributed over  four  months  of  the  main  growing  period.  Of 
these  only  one  storm  produced  run-off.  During  this  storm  .70 
of  an  inch  of  rain  fell  on  each  of  the  areas.  The  run-off  from 
area  B,  10  acres  in  size,  was  335  cubic  feet,  and  it  carried  74 
cubic  feet  of  air-dry  sediment.  As  compared  with  this,  the 
run-off  from  area  A,  also  10  acres  in  size,  was  3,019  cubic  feet, 
and  this  carried  with  it  717  cubic  feet  of  air-dry  sediment. 
Not  only  do  these  figures  show  the  effect  of  rainfall  on 
erosion;  but,  if  it  is  kept  in  mind  that  area  A  has  a  steeper  slope 
and  a  less  dense  plant  cover  than  has  area  B,  the  effects  of  the 
slope  and  vegetation  are  also  evidenced. 

The  rate  also  at  which  rain  falls  is  an  important  factor.  For 
instance,  a  fall  of  .36  of  an  inch  of  rain,  received  in  3  hours  and 
25  minutes,  resulted  in  no  run-off  on  either  erosion  area.  An- 
other storm  of  .65  of  an  inch,  which  was  received  in  8  hours  and 
45  minutes,  likewise  produced  no  run-oflf.  In  contrast  to  these 
storms,  a  fall  of  .85  of  an  inch  of  rain,  which  was  received  in  40 
minutes,  resulted  in  the  deposit  from  area  A  of  50,000  pounds 

1  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  and  Weyl,  Leon  H.,  "Range  Preservation  and  its  Re- 
lation to  Erosion  Control  on  Western  Grazing  Lands."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui. 
675,  pp.  11-15,  1918. 


l8o        CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON  RANGE  AND   PASTURE 

(about  one  carload)  of  air-dry  dirt  and  rocks  of  various  sizes 
(Fig.  56). 

Melting  Snow.  —  The  amount  of  erosion  from  melting  snow 
is  considerable,  especially  where  gully  erosion  is  in  progress. 
The  accumulation  of  winter  snows  on  each  of  the  two  selected 
areas  described  {A  and  B)  has  an  average  annual  water  equivalent 
of  about  9  inches.^  This  accumulation  represents  approxi- 
mately 326,000  cubic  feet  of  water  awaiting  the  spring  thaw. 


Fig.  s6.  — erosion  AREA  A,  HEAD  OF  EPHRAIM  CANYON,  MANTI  NATIONAL 

FOREST,   UTAH. 

As  a  result  of  the  destruction  of  the  plant  cover,  more  than  50,000  pounds,  or  approximately  one 

carload,  of  air-dry  sediment  was  carried  away  from  this  lo-acre  area  by  a  single  rainstorm. 

Now  what  becomes  of  this  snow  water?  It  was  found  that  about 
292,000  cubic  feet,  from  a  total  of  about  326,000  cubic  feet,  ran 
off  the  steeper  area  (A)  while  about  42,000  cubic  feet  ran  off 
area  B.  A  small  amount  of  the  snow  water  evaporates  into  the 
air,  but  the  greater  portion  of  that  which  is  not  accounted  for 
in  the  surface  run-off  is  absorbed  by  the  soil.  In  the  fall  of  the 
year  the  gullies  contain  considerable  loose  dirt,  practically  all 
of  which  is  carried  down  by  the  snow  water.     That  melting 

1  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  and  Weyl,  Leon  H.,  "Range  Preservation  and  its  Re- 
lation to  Erosion  Control  on  Western  Grazing  Lands."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui. 
67s.  PP-  9-",  1918. 


WIND 


i8i 


snow  is  an  important  factor  in  causing  erosion  is  evidenced  by 
the  fact  that  for  a  5-year  period  an  average  of  about  172  cubic 
feet  of  soil,  expressed  on  an  air-dry  basis,  was  deposited  from 
area  A  and  82  cubic  feet  from  area  B.  As  would  be  expected, 
however,  there  is  appreciably  less  sediment  deposit  per  unit  of 
run-off  from  melting  snows  than  from  summer  rain  storms. 


Fig.  57.  —  RANGE   LAND   STRIPPED   OF   ITS   GOOD   SOIL. 
The  remaining  grass  hummocks  mark  the  depth  to  which  the  rich  surface  soil  has  been  removed  by 

wind  and  water  erosion. 


Wind.  —  In  addition  to  the  conspicuous  action  of  the  gully 
and  "  shoestring  "  type  of  erosion,  the  removal  of  soil  caused 
by  the  action  of  the  wind  is  often  considerable.  After  the  de- 
struction of  the  vegetative  cover,  either  entirely  or  in  part,  the 
wind  movement  becomes  highly  effective  in  the  translocation 
of  soil  (Fig.  57).  Almost  everywhere  the  wind  is  sufficiently 
strong  to  carry  from  one  place  to  another  those  soil  particles 
that  are  not  firmly  bound  by  vegetation  and  ultimately  to  de- 


1 82         CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON  RANGE   AND   PASTURE 

posit  them  at  the  base  of  the  slope.  On  elevated  plateaus  the 
wind  often  blows  in  great  gales.  From  places  where  the  sur- 
face soil  is  dry  and  exposed,  such  storms  transport  enormous 
quantities  of  soil. 

Vegetative  Cover.  —  Although  the  extent  of  surface  run-off 
and  erosion  are  determined  by  the  combined  action  of  a  number 
of  factors,  the  vegetative  cover  is  the  most  important  single 
controllable  factor  by  means  of  which  erosion  may  be  largely 
prevented.  Man  has  little  or  no  control  over  climate  and  to- 
pography, and  hence  the  prevention  of  erosion,  especially  on 
pasture  lands,  must  be  accomplished  chiefly  through  the  im- 
provement and  preservation  of  the  vegetative  cover.  On 
most  of  our  western  range  lands  the  native  plant  cover  must  be 
relied  upon  to  protect  the  soil  from  erosion,  because  the  condi- 
tions of  growth  are  not  favorable  to  the  establishment  of  cul- 
tivated plants. 

Obviously,  on  well-vegetated  lands  the  soil  contains  a  much 
larger  amount  of  organic  matter  than  on  denuded  areas.  This 
greatly  increases  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil  and  its 
power  of  absorption.  Accordingly,  on  fully  vegetated  lands 
practically  no  erosion  occurs  except,  possibly,  during  storms  of 
unusual  violence,  and  even  then  the  erosion  is  seldom  serious. 
On  denuded  or  sparsely  vegetated  slopes,  however,  run-off  and 
erosion  may  occur  after  relatively  light  rain  storms.  Such 
factors  as  overgrazing,  permitting  the  animals  on  the  pastures 
when  the  soil  is  wet,  fires,  and  the  like,  all  of  which  tend  to  pack 
the  soil  or  destroy  the  vegetative  cover,  increase  the  damage 
from  erosion  (Fig.  58). 

EROSION,  PLANT  GROWTH,  AND  REVEGETATION 

"  Erosion,  plant  growth,  and  revegetation  "  may  sound  like 
a  curious,  unrelated  combination;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they 
are  intimately  associated.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  obser- 
vation that  the  native  vegetation  commonly  found  on  eroded 
or  leached  soils  is  sparse  and  of  relatively  low  stature.  Water 
washing  over  the  surface  of  the  land  may  remove  a  large  portion 
of  the  small  particles  of  soil,  and  with  that  soil  are  carried  the 


EROSION,   PLANT  GROWTH,  AND   RE  VEGETATION         183 

valuable  plant  foods.     The  coarser  portions  of  the  soil   which 
are  left  are  invariably  low  in  plant  nutrients. 

With  a  view  to  determining  the  cause  of  the  poor  plant  growth 
on  eroded  soils  a  large  number  of  tj^ical  soil  types  characteristic 
of  the  Wasatch  Mountains  of  Utah  were  examined  chemically .^ 


Fig.  s8.  —  RESULTS  OF  WATER,  WIND,  AND  SHEET  EROSION  NEAR  TIMBERLINE 
DUE  TO   OVERGRAZING. 

The  protective  vegetation  has  been  largely  removed  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil  so  seriously  impov- 
erished by  erosion  that  few  species  of  plants  can  e.xist.  It  will  require  decades  to  revegetate 
such  lands  thoroughly,  and  then  it  can  be  done  only  by  the  discontinuance  of  grazing  for  several 
years. 

The  soils  studied  are  typical  of  those  found  in  the  spruce-fir 
type  of  the  summer  sheep  range,  at  approximately  10,000  feet 
elevation.  The  soils  are  of  limestone  origin  and  were  collected 
at  the  same  elevation  and  only  a  few  feet  apart.  They  are 
therefore  comparable  in  all  respects,  except  that  on  one  soil 
type  the  plant  cover  had  been  destroyed  and  erosion  had  oc- 
curred, and  on  the  other  the  plant  cover  was  intact  and  the  soil 
was  in  a  good  state  of  fertility. 

'  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  and  Weyl,  Leon  H.,  "Range  Preservation  and  its  Re- 
lation to  Erosion  Control  on  Western  Grazing  Lands."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  BuL 
675,  pp-  18-22,  1918. 


i84 


CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON  RANGE  AND   PASTURE 


Pl.\nt  Fcx)ds  Contained  in  Eroded  and  Noneroded  Soils 
OF  THE  Same  Type 

SoU 

Lime 
(CaO) 

Potash 
(K2O) 

Phosphoric 
acid 
(P2O6) 

Total 
nitrogen 

Loss  on 
ignition 
(humus) 

Per  cent 
1.26 
1.49 

Per  cent 
1-53 
1.30 

Per  cent 
0.22 
0-33 

Per  cent 
0.156 
0.488 

Per  cent 
6.64 

14-65 

In  all  of  the  constituents  examined,  except  potash,  the  non- 
eroded  soil  was  much  the  richer.  The  greatest  difference  was 
found  in  the  total  content  of  nitrogen,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant plant  foods.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  nitrogen 
content  was  soluble  in  water  and  hence  was  subject  to  appre- 
ciable loss  through  run-off. 

In  addition  to  the  decreased  fertility  of  the  eroded  soil,  it  was 
found  that  this  soil  had  a  maximum  water-holding  capacity  of 
46.8  per  cent,  as  compared  with  76.2  per  cent  for  the  non- 
eroded  soil.  That  part  of  the  soil  moisture  which  cannot  be 
absorbed  by  the  roothairs  of  the  vegetation  —  termed  "  non- 
available  water  "  —  was  found  to  be  15.6  per  cent  in  the  eroded 
soil  and  19.3  per  cent  in  the  noneroded  soil.  Accordingly,  on 
the  basis  of  saturation,  the  noneroded  soil  was  capable  of  yield- 
ing to  the  vegetation  25.7  per  cent  more  water  than  was  the 
eroded  soil. 

Erosion  and  Plant  Growth.  —  In  order  to  determine  the 
difference,  if  any,  in  the  crop-producing  capacity  and  water 
requirements  of  plants  grown  on  typical  eroded  and  noneroded 
soils,  blocks  of  these  two  kinds  of  soil  were  sifted  and  thus 
freed  of  the  larger  pebbles,  moistened  moderately  to  the  same 
percentage  basis,  and  tamped  firmly  into  large  galvanized-iron 
cans.  In  one  set  of  cans  containing  these  selected  soils  was 
grown  pedigreed  Canadian  field  peas,  in  another  set  native 
bromegrass  (Bromus  marginatus),  and  in  the  third  set  a  pedi- 
greed wheat  known  as  Kubanka.  The  pots  were  hermetically 
sealed  and  so  arranged  that  all  the  water  removed  from  the 
soil  had  to  pass  through  the  plants  in  the  form  of  transpiration 
or  "  evaporation."     Water  was  added  from  time  to  time  so 


EROSION  AND  PLANT  GROWTH 


^85 


that  throughout  the  experiment  the  average  moisture  content 
was  about  30  per  cent,  an  amount  ample  to  produce  vigorous 
growth  on  both  soil  types. ^ 

The  two  following  tables  and  Figures  59  and  60  summarize 
the  results  as  to  the  vegetative  growth  and  the  water  require- 


{Forest  Service,  stnder  direction  of  the  Author.) 
Fig.  s9— the   meaning   OF  SOIL  EROSION. 
Canadian  field  peas  {left)  grown  in  poor  or  eroded  soil,  and  (rishl)  grown  in  good  mellow  soil  of  the 
same  type  which  had  not  been  subjected  to  erosion. 

1  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  and  Weyl,  Leon  H.,  "Range  Preservation  and  its  Re- 
lation to  Erosion  Control  on  Western  Grazing  Lands."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui. 
675,  pp.  18,  19,  1918. 


1 86        CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON  RANGE  AND   PASTURE 


(5 

/3 


% 

} 

5 
^ 

3 

,&     ^ 

? 

1 

(V 

> 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

Peas 


Srome 


^/lear 


Water  requirements  per  un/t  dry  ive/g/7t 
wmm    Eroded  so// 
VZZZZ2^    A^oo- eroded  SO// 
^— •   Fer  cent  c//ffere/7ce 

Fig.  6o.  —  RELATIVE  WATER  REQUIREMENTS  PER  UNIT  DRY  WEIGHT  FOR  PEAS, 
NATIVE  BROMEGRASS,  AND  WHEAT  GROWN  IN  ERODED  AND  IN  NONLRODED 
SOILS  OF  THE  SAME  TYPE. 


EROSION  AND  PLANT  GROWTH 


187 


ments  of  the  field  peas,  native  bromegrass.  and  cultivated  wheat 
grown  in  the  two  soils. 

Pounds  of  Water  Required  by  Peas,  Bromegrass,  and  Wheat  per 
Pound  of  Dry  Matter  Produced 


Soil  and  excess  water 

Peas 

Bromegrass 

Wheat 

Eroded 

841 

1-339 

472 

Noneroded 

467 

1,110 

343 

Percentage  of  excess  water  required 

80.1 

20.6 

37-6 

Summary  of  Plant  Growth  and  Water  Requirements  of  Peas,  Brome- 
grass, and  Wheat 


Plant  and  soils 

Number 

of 

leaves 

Leaf 
length" 

Dry 

weight 

Water 

used    per 

plant 

Water 
used  per 
pound  dry 

matter 
produced 

Peas: 

Eroded  soil 

42 
712 

Mm. 

791 
2,634 

Lbs. 
0.79 
6.55 

Lbs. 

667 

3-051 

Lbs. 

841 
467 

Noneroded  soil 

Native  bromegrass: 
Eroded  soil 

35 
84 

2,902 

5.218 

0.41 

0.85 

553 
944 

r-339 
1,110 

Noneroded  soil    

Wheat: 

22 

47 

4,474 
10,080 

5-52 
12.09 

2,516 
3,820 

472 
343 

Noneroded  soil 

"  The  length  of  stem  of  the  peas  is  given  instead  of  the  length  of  leaf. 

The  first  table  shows  that  a  much  greater  amount  of  water 
was  required  on  the  eroded  than  on  the  noneroded  soil  for  the 
production  of  a  unit  of  dry  matter  of  each  of  the  three  plants 
tested.  This  fact  is  particularly  significant,  inasmuch  as  the 
eroded  soil  can  retain  only  a  comparatively  small  amount  of 
water  for  the  growth  of  vegetation. 

Figure  61  was  prepared  from  the  data  given  in  the  second  table 
and  summarizes  the  vegetative  growth  and  water  requirements 


CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON  RANGE  AND   PASTURE 


EROSION  AND  REVEGETATION  189 

of  the  plants  studied.  It  shows  a  remarkable  contrast  in  these 
functions.  In  peas,  for  instance,  the  numbers  of  leaves  are  as 
I  to  27;  the  leaf  lengths  as  i  to  3.3;  the  total  dry  weights  pro- 
duced as  I  to  8.3 ;  and  the  water  used  per  plant  as  i  to  4.6  —  all 
in  favor  of  the  noneroded  soil.  In  the  amount  of  water  used 
per  pound  of  dry  matter  produced,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ratio 
is  reversed,  being  as  1.8  to  i  on  the  eroded  and  noneroded  soils, 
respectively.  The  general  development  of  the  plants  and  the 
water  requirements  of  native  bromegrass  and  wheat  are  similar 
to  those  of  peas.  In  all  the  plants,  appreciably  more  leafage 
and  stem  growth  were  produced  on  the  noneroded  than  on  the 
eroded  soil. 

Erosion  is  adverse  to  plant  growth  chiefly  (i)  because  eroded 
soils  are  so  deficient  in  soil  moisture  as  to  prevent  the  full  de- 
velopment and  seed  production  of  the  vegetation,  and  (2)  be- 
cause of  the  lack  of  adequate  plant  nutrients  in  the  soil  caused 
by  the  leaching  out  of  the  soluble  plant  foods.  Owing  to  the 
deficiencies  in  the  essential  nutrients  only  certain  inferior  types 
of  vegetation  can  occupy  eroded  areas. 

Erosion  and  Revegetation.  —  The  estabhshment  on  over- 
grazed and  eroding  soils  of  a  dense  vegetative  cover  of  the 
more  desirable  forage  and  other  deep-rooted,  soil-binding  spe- 
cies is  a  most  difficult  task.  The  results  of  (i)  the  initial  and 
(2)  the  advanced  stages  of  overgrazing  in  its  relation  to  erosion, 
and  the  attending  economic  consequences,  are  summarized  in 
Figure  62,  and  show  the  usual  steps  involved.  Revegetation  is 
difficult,  in  the  first  place,  because  of  the  low  moisture  content 
and  lowered  water-holding  capacity  of  eroded  soils;  and,  in  the 
second  place,  because  of  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
plants  which  do  come  up  die  early  in  the  spring,  often  in  the 
seedling  stage.  The  few  that  live  through  the  spring  usually 
die  before  the  end  of  the  season.  So  serious  is  this  loss  of  seed- 
ling plants  on  eroded  areas  that  it  is  often  possible  to  predict 
with  much  precision  not  only  the  rate  with  which  the  ground 
cover  may  be  restored  but,  as  indicated  in  Figure  62,  the  par- 
ticular kinds  of  plants  which  will  occupy  areas  in  different  de- 
grees of  depletion. 


190         CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON  RANGE   AND   PASTURE 

On  badly  eroded  lands  many  years  must  elapse  before  the 
desirable  forage  species  can  occupy  the  site  upon  which  they 


a. 

1^ 

g? 

p 

s 

^1 

3 

1^ 

pi 

i 

i 

h-  ^ 

U)  o 

liJ  2 

i  « 

<  u, 

h  o 


formerly  predominated.  At  first  only  rapid-growing  and 
early-maturing  annual  species  can  occupy  such  soils.  After 
many  years  of  growth  and  decay  of  the  vegetation,  provided 


AVOIDANCE  OF  TOO  EARLY  GRAZING  191 

erosion  is  controlled,  the  more  permanent  forms  slowly  make 
their  appearance,  until  finally  the  original  type  of  vegetation 
is  again  in  evidence. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  preserving  the  dark  sur- 
face layer  of  the  soil,  for  this  humus  covering  is  the  very  life 
of  the  land.  Preserving  the  surface  soil  is  much  cheaper  than 
replacing  it,  and  this  is  not  a  difficult  task  if  proper  precautions 
are  taken  when  erosion  begins. 

THE   SOLUTION   OF  THE  EROSION   PROBLEM   ON 
PASTURE   LANDS 

The  evidence  clearly  proves  that  destructive  grazing  by  any 
class  of  stock  on  lands  where  the  topography,  climate,  and  soil 
are  favorable  to  washing,  will  appreciably  increase  both  the 
run-off  and  the  erosion.  The  seriousness  of  the  erosion  will 
vary  according  to  the  extent  to  which  the  plant  cover  is  de- 
stroyed. 

In  order  to  maintain  a  good  cover  of  vegetation,  recognition 
of  the  following  conditions  is  of  primary  importance:  (i)  Over- 
grazing must  not  take  place;  (2)  too  early  grazing  must  be 
avoided;  (3)  deferred  and  rotation  grazing  should  be  prac- 
ticed; (4)  proper  control  and  distribution  of  the  livestock  are 
necessary;  and  (5)  in  extreme  cases  it  is  advisable  to  terrace  the 
land. 

Avoidance  of  Overgrazing.  —  The  avoidance  of  overgrazing 
can  best  be  accomplished  by  correctly  estimating  and  then  ad- 
justing the  number  of  stock  that  a  range  or  pasture  will  safely 
carry.  Overgrazing  may  readily  be  recognized  by  the  weak- 
ened condition  and  disappearance  of  the  choicest  or  the  most 
highly  palatable  forage  plants.  This  is  usually  accompanied 
by  the  appearance  of  incipient  gullies,  followed  by  erosion  of 
varying  degrees  of  seriousness. 

Avoidance  of  Too  Early  Grazing.  —  Permitting  stock  on  the 
pasture  too  early  in  the  spring  when  the  herbage  is  very  young 
and  succulent,  and  when  the  soil  is  well-nigh  saturated  with 
moisture,  is  a  common  means  of  starting  serious  erosion.  At 
no  time  in  the  season  is  it  more  essential  that  a  plant  be  per- 


192 


CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON  RANGE  AND   PASTURE 


mitted  to  develop  its  leafage  —  the  laboratory  for  the  production 
of  food  —  than  early  in  the  spring.  A  few  days'  delay  in  the 
time  at  which  the  stock  are  admitted  means  very  Uttle  loss  in 
the  way  of  pasturage,  for  herbage  a  week  to  ten  days  old  has  but 
little  substance  and  is  deficient  in  sugars  and  other  foods  as 
compared  with  forage  which  has  grown  twice  as  long.  By 
avoiding  too  early  grazing  the  bad  effects  of  trampling  over  the 
loose  wet  soil  are  largely  avoided,  and  the  cover  is  not  injured. 

The  Practice  of  Deferred  and  Rotation  Grazing.  —  Where 
pastures  have  been  overgrazed  to  the  extent  of  thinning  out  the 
cover  of  valuable  forage  plants,  merely  keeping  the  number  of 
stock  down  to  the  grazing  capacity  of  the  lands  and  preventing 
too  early  grazing  in  the  spring  are  not  in  themselves  effective 
means  of  reestablishing  the  desired  vegetation.  The  deferred 
and  rotation  grazing  plan  of  reserving  first  one  area  for  grazing 
and  then  another,  for  a  season  or  longer,  until  the  seed  crop  has 
ripened,  should  be  adopted.  On  sheep  range  this  plan  can 
readily  be  applied,  as  the  animals  are  under  perfect  control. 
On  cattle  range  the  deferred-grazing  plan  can  be  carried  out  if 
the  animals  are  controlled  by  riding  or  by  the  use  of  drift  fences. 
On  fenced  pastures  division  fences  are  invaluable. 

The  Control  and  Distribution  of  Livestock.  —  Even  if  the 
grazing  capacity  of  the  lands  has  been  correctly  determined,  the 
season  of  grazing  adjusted,  and  the  deferred  and  rotation  sys- 
tem of  grazing  adopted,  erosion  of  pasture  lands  is  frequently 
brought  about  by  poor  distribution  of  stock.  This  is  often  due 
to  improper  salting  and  faulty  handling  of  the  stock. 

The  most  eft'ective  means  of  holding  cattle  and  horses  on  the 
portion  of  the  range  desired,  as  previously  shown,  are  the  suit- 
able location  of  the  salt  grounds,  the  proper  development  of 
watering  places,  and  the  right  setting  of  drift  fences. 

In  addition  to  improperly  estimating  the  grazing  capacity  of 
the  lands,  three  conditions  are  chiefly  responsible  for  the  de- 
struction of  the  vegetative  cover,  namely,  bedding  too  long  in 
one  place,   too  close  herding,  and  the  excessive  use  of  dogs. 

Terracing  and  Planting.  —  Areas  which  have  been  so  seriously 
depleted  through  the  bad  management  of  livestock  that  an 


TERRACING  AND  PLANTING 


m 


almost  complete  destruction  of  the  plant  cover  has  resulted, 
may  be  reclaimed  by  terracing  and  planting  after  the  livestock 
has  been  entirely  excluded.  The  gully  type  of  erosion  can 
usually  be  effectively  broken  up  by  the  construction  of  terraces 
laid  out  approximately  on  the  contour,  but  so  placed  as  to  al- 
low the  water  to  drain  off  through  their  channels.  If  they  are 
reenforced  by  an  occasional  small  rock-fill  built  in  the  washes, 
such  terraces  are  effective. 


-J'/ci^js  f/<3itsnec/  on  uppet~  surf^cG 
6'o"     


Fig.  63.— terrace  DRAG. 

An  effective  implement  used  in  shaping  up  terraces  to  check  serious  erosion  1 


important  watersheds. 


The  place  for  successfully  attacking  the  erosion  evil  is  at  its 
source.  Accordingly,  the  first  terrace  should  be  built  near  the 
head  of  the  gulhes.  Those  estabHshed  below  the  uppermost 
terrace  should  be  placed  at  intervals  of  15  to  30  feet,  depending 
on  the  steepness  of  the  slope.  The  terraces  should  be  built 
about  4  feet  wide.  This  can  be  done  most  cheaply  by  the  use 
of  the  "  terrace  drag,"  which  is  run  over  the  surface  of  the  soil 
after  plowing  (Fig.  63). 

After  the  construction  of  the  terraces  it  is  well  to  seed  down  the 
area,  preferably  to  plants  that  form  a  turf.  On  the  native 
pasture  lands  seeding  to  the  natural  vegetation  gives  the  best 
results  (Fig.  64).  Terracing  is  expensive,  however,  and  should 
be  resorted  to  only  where  erosion  is  very  serious  and  where  it  is 
highly  important  to  build  up  the  lands  in  a  short  time. 


194  CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON  R.\NGE  AND   PASTURE 

HOW  MORE  THAN  HALF  OF  THE  EROSION  BATTLE  IS  WON 

In  summarizing  it  may  be  restated  that  much  more  than  half 
of  the  battle  of  preserving  pasture  lands  from  the  devastating 
effects  of  erosion  is  won  by  the  maintenance  of  a  good  vegetative 


Fig.  64.  — a   terrace   SEEDED   TO   MOUNTAIN   BROMEGRASS  ON  LAND   WHICH 

FORMERLY  WAS   ERODING  SERIOUSLY. 

The  old  shoestring  gullies  have  "rounded  out"  and  can  no  longer  be  seen. 

cover  to  prevent  the  starting  of  soil  washing.  The  most  effect- 
ive method  of  doing  this  involves  (i)  the  avoidance  of  overgraz- 
ing, (2)  the  avoidance  of  too  early  grazing,  (3)  the  application 
of  deferred  and  rotation  grazing,  (4)  artificial  reseeding  (in 
choice  sites  only),  and  (5)  the  proper  control  and  distribution  of 
stock. 

Where  the  depletion  of  the  soil  and  the  formation  of  long- 
established  gullies  make  thorough  revegetation  impossible, 
destructive  floods  and  erosion  may  be  controlled  by  (i)  the 
total  exclusion  of  stock,  (2)  terracing  and  planting,  and  (3)  the 
construction  of  dams. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  (a)  To  what  extent  do  topography,  climate,  and  soil  determine  the 
degree  of  erosion?     (b)  To  what  extent  does  the  plant  cover  influence  it? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


195 


2.  To  what  extent  may  erosion  cause  damage  to  (i)  crop  production, 
(2)  personal  and  other  property,  (3)  roads,  trails,  etc.? 

3.  To  what  extent  may  melting  snow  cause  erosion  on  hilly  lands? 

4.  (a)  Is  rainfall  or  the  run-off  from  melting  snow  more  influential  in  causing 
erosion?  (b)  To  what  extent  is  the  degree  of  erosion  and  run -off  influenced 
by  the  following  factors:  (i)  Rate  at  which  the  rain  falls,  (2)  steepness  of 
the  slope,  (3)  presence  of  well-established  gullies,  (4)  character  of  the  soil. 
(5)  density  and  character  of  the  vegetation? 

5.  Since  man  has  little  control  over  climate  and  topography,  by  what 
means  is  he  able  largely  to  control  erosion? 

6.  To  what  extent  do  erosion  and  the  depletion  of  the  soil  resulting  there- 
from influence  the  tj^e  of  vegetation  and  the  luxuriance  of  its  growth? 

7.  (a)  How  does  erosion  affect  the  plant  foods  in  the  soil?  (b)  How  does 
erosion  influence  the  potential  crop-producing  capacity  of  the  soil? 

8.  (a)  Compare  the  amount  of  water  required  for  the  production  of  one 
pound  of  dry  vegetable  matter  of  a  given  species  grown  on  an  eroded  soil 
with  that  required  on  a  noneroded  soil?  (b)  Compare  the  amount  of  water 
available  for  plant  growth  in  a  given  volume  of  eroded  soil  with  that  in  a 
noneroded  soil? 

9.  Name  five  precautions  to  be  observed  in  the  handling  of  pasture  lands 
that  are  subject  to  more  or  less  serious  erosion. 

10.  Where  revegetation  through  the  application  of  the  deferred-grazing 
system  is  not  effective,  what  treatment  of  the  lands  may  prevent  erosion? 

11.  (a)  Where  terracing  and  planting  are  justified  to  prevent  erosion, 
explain  how  the  terraces  should  be  built  and  how  far  apart  they  should  be 
placed,  (b)  To  what  extent  should  stock  be  permitted  to  graze  on  areas  so 
seriously  eroded  that  terracing  is  necessary? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Baker,  W.  H.     The  Soil-Saving  Dam.     Mo.  Agr.  Ext.  Service  Cir.  14,  191 7. 
Carpenter,  John  W.,  and  Gross,  E.  R.      The  Terrace  in  Mississippi. 

Miss.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Extension  Bui.  9,  1918. 
Clements,  Frederic  E.     Plant  Succession:  An  Analysis  of  the  Develop- 
ment of  Vegetation.     Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash.,  Pub.  No. 

242,  1916. 
Dana,  S.  T.     Farms,  Forests,  and  Erosion.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Yearbook, 

1916. 
Davis,  R.  O.  E.    Soil  Erosion  in  the  South.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  180, 

1915- 
Ramser,  C.  E.     Gullies:  How  to  Control  and  Reclaim  Them.     U.  S.  Dept. 

of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  1234,  1922. 
Reynolds,  R.  V.  R.     Grazing  and  Floods:  A  Study  of  Conditions  in  the 

Manti  National  Forest,  Utah.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Forest  Service, 

Bui.  91,  1911. 


196  CONTROL  OF  EROSION  ON   RANGE  AND   PASTURE 

Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  and  Weyl,  Leon  H.  Range  Preservation  and  its 
Relation  to  Erosion  Control  on  Western  Grazing  Lands.  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  675,  1918. 

Sanford,  F.  H.  Michigan's  Shifting  Sands:  Their  Control  and  Better 
Utilization.    Mich.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Special  Bui.  79,  1916. 


CHAPTER  X 

GRAZING  ON  WOODLANDS  AND  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE 
FUTURE   TIMBER   SUPPLY 

For  many  years  an  active  and  careful  study  of  the  best  use 
to  which  lands  of  different  classes  may  be  put  has  been  made  by 
Federal  and  State  agencies  and  institutions.  Farming,  grazing, 
and  timber  growing  are  the  principal  uses  of  land  for  crop  pro- 
duction. Farming  is  the  most  intensive  and  timber  growing 
the  least,  with  grazing  midway  between.  In  most  systems  of 
diversified  farming  they  are  combined,  especially  farming  and 
grazing.  Not  uncommonly,  however,  grazing  and  timber  grow- 
ing are  combined,  as  on  the  National  Forests,  on  cut-over  lands, 
and  on  the  farm  woodlot. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  relative  to  the  wisdom  of 
grazing  stock  on  timbered  lands,  especially  where  there  is  need 
for  tree  reproduction.  Most  of  the  lands  that  are  now  pro- 
ducing a  good  stand  of  timber  are  probably  more  valuable  for  a 
continued  production  of  timber  than  for  any  other  purpose. 
In  many  regions  growth  is  rapid,  the  quality  of  the  lumber  pro- 
duced is  good,  natural  reproduction  after  cutting  is  satisfactory 
where  the  lands  are  properly  handled,  and  the  timber  crop  is 
generally  accessible.  However,  the  livestock  industry  is  of 
primary  importance  throughout  the  timber  region  of  the  West, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  forest  area  is  utilized  as  pasture  in 
the  spring,  summer,  or  autumn. 

The  utilization  of  the  forage  on  the  better-timbered  areas, 
especially  on  important  watersheds,  has  complicated  the  pasture- 
management  plans.  Many  instances  are  recorded  of  the  seed- 
ling and  sapling  stand  being  badly  injured  by  grazing.  In  some 
places  this  has  resulted  in  a  depletion  of  the  normal  timber 
growth,  in  the  production  of  deformed  and  diseased  trees,  and 
in  injury  to  important  watersheds.     The  most  serious  damage 

197 


198  GRAZING  ON  WOODLANDS 

has  almost  invariably  occurred  on  lands  cropped  by  sheep  or 
goats.  However,  after  many  years  of  intensive  investigation 
and  wide  observation  by  many  specialists  in  various  parts  of  the 
West,  it  has  been  concluded  that  practically  all  serious  damage 
to  timber  reproduction  is  caused  by  too  heavy  grazing  and  by 
faulty  handling  of  the  stock. 

Although  the  forage  on  most  areas  that  are  timbered  by  such 
species  as  yellow  pine,  Douglas  fir,  aspen,  and  other  hardwood 
types  is  probably  not  superior  to  that  on  untimbered  lands,  it 
furnishes  an  enormous  amount  of  good  spring  and  summer  feed 
for  all  classes  of  livestock.  Indeed,  the  use  of  the  forage  on 
timbered  lands  is  indispensable  to  the  meat-producing  industry 
in  many  communities  of  the  West.  It  is  the  aim  here  to  point 
out  to  what  extent  injury  to  forest  reproduction  may  be  caused 
by  grazing,  under  what  conditions  the  damage  is  most  serious, 
and  how  such  damage  may  be  reduced  by  improved  livestock 
management. 

RESULTS  OF  INVESTIGATIONS 

Because  the  policy  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service  per- 
mits grazing  on  all  of  the  National  Forest  range  so  far  as  it  is 
consistent  with  good  forestry  practice,  this  bureau  has  made  a 
very  careful  study  of  the  effect  of  grazing  on  timber  reproduction 
in  the  West.  The  study  has  been  so  organized  as  to  cover  the 
broader  forest  types  and  climatic  regions.  In  the  pursuit  of  this 
study,  detailed  investigations  were  made  on  the  National 
Forests  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  and  on  certain  Forests  in 
California  and  in  central  Utah. 

Studies  in  Northern  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington.  — 
In  the  Northwest  a  number  of  investigations  were  conducted  to 
determine  the  effects  of  grazing  on  the  reproduction  of  various 
coniferous  and  certain  other  species.  Sampson  and  Dayton^ 
in  191 1  initiated  a  comprehensive  study  on  the  Shasta  National 
Forest  in  northern  California  to  determine  the  amount  and 
seriousness  of  injury  to  timber  reproduction  caused  by  grazing, 

'  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  and  Dayton,  William  A.,  "Relation  of  Grazing  to  Timber 
Reproduction,  Shasta  National  Forest."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Review  of  Forest 
Service  Investigations,  Vol.  2,  pp.  18-24,  1913- 


STUDIES  IN  NORTHERN  CALIFORNIA  199 

the  season  of  greatest  injury,  the  relative  damage  to  the  various 
important  timber  species,  the  extent  of  injury  both  from  brow- 
sing and  trampHng,  and  under  what  conditions  grazing  may  aid 
forest  reproduction.  From  the  facts  ascertained  it  was  hoped 
to  develop  a  plan  of  grazing  which  would  prevent  serious  injury 
to  the  young  growth. 

Based  upon  three  examinations  in  191 1  and  191 2  of  plots  con- 
taining 11,040  plants,  consisting  of  sugar  pine,  white  fir,  Douglas 
fir,  yellow  pine,  and  incense  cedar,  all  of  a  size  subject  to  injury 
by  grazing,  the  following  results  were  recorded  of  the  damage 
caused  by  sheep  and  by  cattle,  respectively:  38.3  per  cent  and 
8  per  cent  of  the  yellow  pine  reproduction,  21.8  per  cent  and  19 
per  cent  of  the  Douglas  fir,  48.3  per  cent  and  11  per  cent  of  the 
white  fir,  and  26.9  per  cent  and  12.5  per  cent  of  the  sugar  pine. 
These  figures  include  all  types  of  injury,  much  of  which  was  so 
sHght  that  most  of  the  reproduction  recovered  fully  in  later  years. 
For  the  period  of  observation,  only  .03  per  cent  of  10,888  speci- 
mens on  the  plots  were  killed  by  grazing.  During  this  time,  155 
young  tree  plants  were  killed  by  other  agencies  than  stock.  The 
factors  chiefly  instrumental  in  the  destruction  of  the  stand  were 
drought,  disease,  and  rodents.  The  only  serious  injury  noted 
was  on  goat  and  sheep  ranges,  and  this  was  due  entirely  to  faulty 
management  of  the  stock. 

As  early  as  1897,  Coville^  investigated  the  injuries  from  sheep 
grazing  on  forest  growth  in  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  Oregon. 
It  was  found  that  over  most  of  the  reserve  of  4,493,000  acres,  em- 
bracing the  main  ridge  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  the  actual 
damage  to  the  growth  of  timber  was  confined  chiefly  to  small 
areas,  such  as  bed  grounds  and  trails.  On  heavily  overgrazed 
range,  where  the  forage  was  badly  trampled,  the  stunted  growth 
of  pine  seedlings  was  frequently  seen. 

Working  on  the  National  Forest  range  lands  of  Oregon  gen- 
erally, Munger^  concluded  that  the  timber  reproduction  was 

1  Coville,  Frederick  V.,  "Forest  Growth  and  Sheep  Grazing  in  the  Cascade 
Mountains  of  Oregon."     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Forestry,  Bui.  15,  1898. 

2  Munger,  Thornton  T.,  "Western  Yellow  Pine  in  Oregon."  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.  Bui.  418,  1917. 


200  GRAZING  ON  WOODLANDS 

somewhat  exposed  to  danger  from  domestic  foraging  animals, 
particularly  sheep,  which,  when  closely  herded,  were  found  to 
trample  a  good  many  seedlings.  Where  the  forage  was  insuffi- 
cient or  of  an  inferior  quahty,  sheep  were  also  found  to  browse 
on  the  young  tree  growth  with  such  intensity  as  to  deform  the 
reproduction  permanently.     Munger  concludes: 

If  the  range  is  not  overstocked  and  the  sheep  arc  properly  handled,  they 
do  not,  in  Oregon,  do  any  appreciable  damage  to  yellow  pine  young  growth 
in  the  forest  at  large;  trees  over  6  feet  high  are  practically  immune  from 
damage. 

The  investigations  conducted  in  Oregon  hold  equally  well  for 
Washington. 

Studies  in  Idaho.  —  Detailed  investigations  were  conducted  by 
Sparhawk^  from  1912  to  1914,  on  the  Payette  National  Forest 
in  central  Idaho.  The  conditions  in  this  locality  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  yellow  pine  forests  in  the  Northwest,  and  hence 
the  data  and  conclusions  are  more  or  less  applicable  to  the 
Northwest  generally.  The  livestock  industry  is  important 
throughout  the  yellow  pine  region  of  the  Northwest,  and  the 
lands  are  much  used  for  grazing  in  spring  and  summer.  In 
Idaho  alone  the  yellow  pine  lands  vdll  summer  at  least  a  million 
sheep  or  200,000  cattle. 

Extent  of  Injury.  —  On  the  plots  actually  grazed  the  damage  to 
seedlings  more  than  a  year  old  was  insignificant,  the  yearly  aver- 
age being  about  2.8  per  cent.  Of  the  seedlings  less  than  a  year 
old,  however,  15.4  per  cent  were  killed  on  the  lightly  grazed  area 
studied,  and  24.9  per  cent  were  destroyed  on  the  heavily  pastured 
sample  area.  These  figures,  however,  represent  the  maximum 
loss  which  would  result  if  the  sheep  grazed  over  every  portion  of 
the  range.  Such  intense  grazing  obviously  seldom  occurs  unless 
the  pasture  is  heavily  overstocked.  If  the  specially  selected 
plots  are  considered  as  a  whole,  some  of  which  were  not  grazed, 
I.I  per  cent  of  the  total  stand  of  young  trees  were  killed  each 
year  on  the  lightly  cropped  sample  area,  and  2.5  per  cent  on  the 
heavily  stocked  area.     Of  the  seedlings  less  than  a  year  of  age, 

'  Sparhawk,  W.  N.,  "Effect  of  Grazing  upon  Western  Yellow  Pine  Reproduction 
in  Central  Idaho."     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  738,  1918. 


STUDIES   IN  IDAHO 


20I 


on  the  other  hand,  8.8  per  cent  and  14.8  per  cent  were  killed  each 
year  on  the  lightly  and  the  heavily  grazed  areas,  respectively. 
As  was  to  be  expected,  during  the  first  few  years  of  growth  the 
seedlings  were  readily  killed  by  only  slight  injuries.  This  was 
because  of  their  small  size,  the  shallow  root  system,  and  the 
presence  of  only  a  small  amount  of  woody  material  in  their  stems. 

Comparative  Seasonal  Injury.  —  The  percentage  of  seedlings 
killed  by  grazing,  notably  those  less  than  one  year  old,  was  appre- 
ciably greater  early  in  the  5 
season  than  it  was  later. 
Early  in  the  season,  when 
the  soil  is  wet,  the  roots  are 
readily  trampled  out  of  the 
ground,  and  the  stems  are 
easily  crushed  or  torn  asun- 
der by  the  sharp,  cutting 
hoofs  of  the  sheep.  To- 
wards the  end  of  the  season 
the  stems  are  much  tougher, 
the  roots  are  deeper,  and 
the  soil  is  firmer;  hence  the 
injury  is  usually  much  less 
serious  than  in  the  spring. 
In  general,  however,  there 
is  a  sufficient  number  of 
seedlings  left  on  the  mod- 
erately grazed  lands  follow- 
ing a  good  seed  year  to 
make  a  full  stand  of  timber 
in  spite  of  the  injuries  caused 
by  stock.  Accordingly,  where  the  stock  are  carefully  handled,  a 
satisfactory  stand  of  reproduction  may  be  expected  on  practi- 
cally all  lands  in  the  Northwest. 

Damage  According  to  Intensity  of  Grazing  and  Amount  of 
Forage.  —  Generally,  the  amount  of  injury  or  actual  destruction 
of  the  reproduction  increases  with  the  closeness  of  the  grazing 
(Fig.  65).     Except  on  bed  grounds  and  trails  the  damage  was 


{Forest  Service.) 
Fig.  65.  —  A  YELLOW  PINE  4   FEET  TALL, 
WITH  LATERAL  BRANCHES  SEVERELY 
BROWSED  BY  SHEEP  ON  OVERGRAZED 
RANGE. 

The  leader  is  out  of  reach  of  the  sheep,  and  this 
makes  possible  the  entire  recovery  of  the  sap- 
ling if  destructive  grazing  is  discontinued. 


202  GR.\ZING  ON  WOODLANDS 

seldom  serious  to  seedlings  more  than  a  year  old;  and  even  under 
the  worst  conditions  only  about  4  per  cent  of  the  stand  more 
than  a  year  old  was  killed.  Very  few  seedlings  were  browsed 
where  the  bed  ground  was  used  for  one  night  only.  On  bed 
grounds  used  for  several  nights  in  succession,  on  the  other  hand, 
most  of  the  leafage  of  the  young  growth  was  devoured,  and  some- 
times even  the  bark  was  gnawed  off.  Where  the  range  was 
grazed  too  closely,  and  the  total  quantity  of  feed  was  too  small 
for  the  number  of  stock  handled,  considerably  more  injury  both 
from  browsing  and  from  trampling  occurred  than  where  the 
forage  was  ample. 

Studies  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  —  Hill^  made  a  critical 
study  of  the  injury  caused  by  the  grazing  of  cattle  and  sheep  to 
yellow  pine  reproduction  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  in  19 10. 
The  best  summer  and  autumn  forage  in  this  region  is  found  in 
the  open  stands  of  yellow  pine,  mainly  at  elevations  above  6,cxx) 
feet.  This  type  constitutes  about  6  per  cent  of  the  total  land 
area  of  these  States.  It  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  that  the 
forage  crop  in  the  yellow  pine  type  be  utilized  to  the  greatest 
extent  possible.  It  is  equally  important,  however,  to  interfere 
as  little  as  possible  with  the  yellow  pine  reproduction,  which  is 
the  most  important  timber  of  the  Southwest. 

Average  Injury  to  Reproduction.  ■ —  Two  hundred  and  fifty 
representative  plots  were  located  on  cattle  and  sheep  range,  and 
observations  covering  a  period  of  three  years  were  made.  On 
these  plots  16.7  per  cent  of  the  seedlings  up  to  sh  feet  in  height 
were  seriously  damaged  each  year;  that  is,  the  seedlings  were 
damaged  to  the  extent  of  interfering  more  or  less  seriously  with 
their  growth,  or  of  being  actually  killed.  In  addition,  16. i  per 
cent  of  the  entire  stand  was  slightly  damaged,  and  on  an  aver- 
age 21  per  cent  of  the  seedlings  below  6  inches  in  height  were 
seriously  damaged,  each  year.  The  injury  inflicted  gradually 
decreased  with  the  height  growth  of  the  reproduction  (Fig.  66). 

Season  of  Injury.  —  The  least  injury  to  the  young  timber 

1  Hill,  Robert  R.,  "Effects  of  Grazing  upon  Western  Yellow  Pine  Reproduction 
in  the  National  Forests  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui. 
580,  191 7. 


STUDIES  IN  ARIZONA  AND   NEW   MEXICO 


203 


Stand  was  recorded  during  the  first  few  weeks  of  each  growing 
period,  that  is,  before  June  15.  The  greatest  damage,  on  the 
other  hand,  occurred  during  the  latter  half  of  June  and  early  in 
July.  However,  considerable  damage  was  noted  throughout  the 
entire  grazing  season 
and  in  the  autumn 
when  the  forage  be- 
came dry  and  some- 
what unpalatable. 

Injury  in  Relation 
to  Intensity  of  Graz- 
ing and  Character  and 
A  hundance  of  Forage. 
—  Sheep  were  found 
to  be  considerably 
more  destructive  to 
young  timber  repro- 
duction than  were 
cattle  and  horses. 
On  overgrazed  areas, 
however,  all  classes 
of  stock  are  liable  to 
cause  more  or  less 
serious  damage  to  re- 
production. Under 
such  conditions  cat- 
tle and  horses  may  injure  as  much  as  10  per  cent  of  all  tree 
growth  less  than  5I  feet  in  height  (Fig.  67).  Under  normal  graz- 
ing, that  is,  grazing  that  is  not  destructive  of  the  forage  crop, 
sheep  may  injure  as  much  as  11  per  cent  of  the  reproduction 
under  5^  feet  in  height.  The  sheep  range  studied  was  about 
average  for  the  type,  and  the  stock  were  well  adapted  both  to 
the  character  of  the  forage  and  to  the  topographic  features. 
The  way  in  which  the  stock  is  handled  has  much  to  do  with  the 
severity  of  the  grazing  injury.  Where  cattle  were  permitted  to 
congregate,  as  much  as  22  per  cent  of  the  total  tree  stand  be- 
tween 3  and  6  feet  in  height  was  injured  in  varying  degrees 


Fig.   66.  — yellow    PINE    5    FEET    TALL    INJURED 

BY  CATTLE  BROWSING  AND  RUBBING. 

Injury  to  the  terminal  shoot  by  the  browsing  of  cattle  seldom 

occurs  after  the  saplini;  attains  a  height  of  s'  feet. 


204 


GRAZING  ON  WOODLANDS 


of  seriousness.      Likewise,   the    injury  from    sheep  on  estab- 
lished bed  grounds  was  almost  invariably  heavy. 

Both  the  character  and  abundance  of  the  forage,  and  the  topo- 
graphic features  determine  very  largely  the  extent  of  damage 

done  to  the  timber 
reproduction.  The  in- 
jury on  bunchgrass 
range  was  appreciably 
higher  than  that  re- 
corded on  gramagrass 
range,  the  percentages 
Df  injury  recorded 
3eing  32  and  11, 
respectively.  Accord- 
ingly, it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  it  is  a 
good  deal  safer  to 
graze  cattle  than  sheep 
on  the  bunchgrass  type 
of  range.  Considerably 
less  damage  to  the  re- 
production was  re- 
corded in  those  years 
when  the  supply  of 
succulent  and  palatable 
feed  was  ample  than 
in  those  seasons  when 
the  forage  was  deficient  in  quantity  or  of  an  inferior  quality. 

In  1908,  Pearson^  initiated  a  study  to  determine  grazing 
damage  to  western  yellow  pine  reproduction  on  the  Coconino 
Forest  in  northern  Arizona.  On  the  open  range  the  damage 
to  pine  seedlings  i  to  3  years  of  age  was  found  to  vary  from  10  per 
cent  to  28  per  cent,  and  on  established  sheep  bed  grounds  and 
on  driveways  the  damage  was  even  greater.  His  studies,  like 
those  of  other  investigators,  showed  that  horses  and  cattle  do 


Fig.  67.  — FORKED  AND  OTHERWISE  DEFORMED 
TREES  ARE  OFTEN  THE  RESULT  OF  THE 
BROWSING  OF   FORAGING  ANIM.^LS. 

Such  deformities  materially  decrease  the  money  value  of  the 
merchantable  timber. 


u, 


'  Pearson,  G.  A.,  "Reproduction  of  Western  Yellow  Pine  in  the  Southwest.' 
S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Forest  Service,  Cir.  174,  1910. 


EFFECT  OF   GRAZING  UPON  ASPEN   REPRODUCTION       205 


little  damage  to  the  timber  stand.  Because  of  the  injury  in- 
flicted by  sheep,  it  is  clear  that  this  class  of  stock  should  be  ex- 
cluded from  areas  on  which  reproduction  is  desired. 


{Forest  Service,  by  the  Author.) 

Fig.  68.  —  clear-cut  ASPEN  LAND  GRAZED  BY  SHEEP  TWICE  EACH  SEASON 
FOR  THREE  SUCCESSIVE  YEARS  AFTER   CUTTING. 

A  profusion  of  root  and  coppice  sprouts  was  produced  during  the  first  three  years  after  the  cutting, 
but  each  season  they  were  gnawed  down  by  the  sheep.  After  the  third  year  no  new  sprouts 
were  produced,  and  the  area  was  left  without  aspen  reproduction.     (Sec  Fig.  69.) 

Effect  of  Grazing  upon  Aspen  Reproduction.  —  Beneath  the 
aspen,  which  ordinarily  grows  in  somewhat  open  stands,  is 
usually  a  luxuriant  understory  of  grasses,  weeds,  and  browse, 
which  is  grazed  with  relish  by  all  classes  of  stock.  As  pasture 
land,  the  aspen  type  is  considerably  more  valuable  than  either 
the  spruce-fir  type  at  a  higher  elevation,  or  the  yellow  pine  or 
oakbrush  type  below  the  aspen.  Unfortunately,  however,  the 
stock,  especially  sheep,  do  not  confine  themselves  entirely  to  the 
forage,  no  matter  how  abundant  and  palatable  it  may  be.     They 


2o6  GRAZING  ON  WOODLANDS 

eat  also  the  leafage  and  tender  twigs  of  the  aspen.  Thus  the 
oncoming  aspen  stand  is  often  badly  injured  or  even  killed  by- 
grazing  animals.  This  situation  usually  makes  it  very  difficult 
to  secure  a  succeeding  stand  of  timber  on  cut-over  lands  without 
some  loss  in  forage  utilization. 

Effects  of  Sheep  Browsing.  —  For  a  period  of  five  years  Samp- 
son^ made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  effects  of  sheep  and  cattle 
grazing  upon  the  reproduction  of  aspen  under  typical  range  con- 
ditions. It  was  found  that  27.2  per  cent  of  the  aspen  repro- 
duction under  about  40  inches  in  height  was  killed  by  light  sheep 
grazing,  31.8  per  cent  on  moderately  grazed  areas,  and  65  per  cent 
on  lands  closely  cropped.  One  of  the  silvicultural  practices  is  to 
clear-cut  the  aspen  stand.  Under  average  conditions  where  such 
cutting  is  done,  a  dense  stand  of  root  sprouts  invariably  replaces 
the  original  cover  after  the  first  year  of  cutting.  On  clear-cut 
plots  especially  established  for  the  grazing  study,  the  damage 
done  by  sheep  browsing  was  found  to  be  exceedingly  heavy. 
Three  successive  years  of  sheep  browsing  on  clear-cut  plots  re- 
sulted in  the  complete  destruction  of  the  young  aspen  stand.  In 
other  words,  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  of  removal  of  the  sprouts 
by  sheep,  the  sprouting  ceased  completely,  and  the  aspen  roots 
were  evidently  exhausted  and  died  (Figs.  68  and  69).  It  was 
concluded  that  under  moderate  conditions  of  grazing,  when  the 
sprouts  reach  a  height  of  about  45  inches,  they  are  practically 
exempt  from  injury  by  sheep  browsing.  The  extent  to  which 
the  aspen  sprouts  in  standing  timber  were  either  killed  or  injured 
was  found  to  be  in  direct  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the 
grazing.  Although  the  leaves  of  the  young  stand  were  most 
relished,  the  stems,  as  shown  in  Figure  70,  were  nevertheless 
devoured  to  a  considerable  extent.  A  goodly  portion  of  the 
young  tender  twigs  was  also  consumed  by  sheep  in  the  autumn 
after  the  leaves  had  dropped. 

Effects  of  Cattle  Browsing.  —  The  injury  to  the  aspen  stand 
caused  by  the  grazing  of  cattle,  although  a  factor  of  some  im- 
portance in  obtaining  good  thrifty  reproduction,  was  in  no  sense 

'  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Effect  of  Grazing  upon  Asoen  Reproduction."  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  741,  1919. 


EFFECT  OF  GRAZING  UPON  ASPEN  REPRODUCTION      207 

very  serious  where  the  stock  was  properly  handled.     The  damage 
was  never  so  great  as  that  caused  by  sheep. 
As  on  sheep  range,  so  on  cattle  range  the  extent  of  injury 


Fig.  69.  —  CLEAR-CUT  ASPEN   LAND   PROTECTED   FROM   SHEEP   GRAZING. 

Under  such  conditions  as  many  as  100,000  sprouts  to  the  acre  are  not  uncommonly  produced. 

(See  Fig.  68.) 

varies  directly  with  the  closeness  of  the  grazing.  The  injury  is 
less,  indeed  practically  nominal,  on  lightly  or  moderately  cropped 
areas,  and  relatively  heavy  (17.5  per  cent  in  1915  and  36.1  per 
cent  in  191 6)  on  very  heavily  grazed  areas.  Thrifty  aspen  repro- 
duction of  varying  size  and  age  is  found  practically  throughout 
the  aspen  type  where  the  cover  is  extensive  and  where  there  has 
been  moderate  grazing  for  a  number  of  years  by  cattle  only. 
This  is  by  no  means  true  of  most  sheep  range  in  the  aspen  type. 
Where  only  a  small  amount  of  aspen  occurs  on  the  range,  as  along 


208 


GRAZING  ON  WOODLANDS 


Streams  where  cattle  are  in- 
clined to  congregate,  the  aspen 
reproduction  is  often  serious- 
ly injured.  Accordingly,  it  is 
necessary  to  protect  such 
lands  periodically  in  order  to 
perpetuate  the  aspen  stand. 
Where  the  aspen  type  extends 
over  large  areas,  however,  if 
cattle  are  properly  handled, 
they  do  not  seriously  inter- 
fere with  the  perpetuation  of 
aspen  timber. 

GRAZING    FARM 
WOODLAND 

In  the  vast  central  hard- 
wood region  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States 
farm  woodlands  are  main- 
tained chiefly  for  supplying 
farm  timber.  This  includes 
fuel  wood,  posts,  poles,  rough 
lumber,  ties,  and  other  pro- 
ducts. The  woodlands  are 
also  maintained  for  the  pro- 
tection which  they  afiford  to 
the  farmstead  and  to  growing 
crops.  In  the  plains  region  of 
rich  agricultural  soils,  where 
the  farm  timber  has  mostly 
been  established  by  planting, 
protection  and  shade  for  hve- 
stock  are  prominent  uses  of 
the  woodland.  Accordingly, 
it  is  not  probable  that  in  the 
latter  region  the  farm  wood- 
land will  be  very  important  in  the  production  of  commercial 


Fig.  70. 


{Forest  Service,  by  lite  Author.) 
REMNANTS  OF  ASPEN  SPROUTS 
ON  SHEEP  RANGE. 
The   leafage   and   tender  stems   of  young    aspen 
sprouts  are   highly   relished   by  sheep.      Such 
cropping  as  here  shown  often  results  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  sprouts  in  a  single  season. 


DAMAGE   DONE  TO  TREE   GROWTH   BY   GRAZING  209 

timber.  Small  areas  of  a  few  acres  do  not  lend  themselves  to 
the  establishment  of  good  forest  conditions.  The  forest  floor, 
for  instance,  becomes  dry,  the  tops  of  the  trees  are  often  severely- 
damaged  by  storms,  and  the  trees  along  the  edges  of  the  stand 
are  usually  of  inferior  form.  For  these  and  other  reasons  pas- 
turing is  commonly  practiced  on  the  small  planted  woodland. 
In  the  extensive  hardwood-forest  region,  with  its  large  farm 
areas  of  broken,  stony,  or  poor  soils  that  are  in  timber,  more  at- 
tention can  profitably  be  given  to  the  growing  of  trees. 

In  general,  timber  production  for  profit  can  not  compete  with 
the  growing  of  farm  crops  or  pasture  forage  on  lands  that  have  a 
value  of  as  much  as  $30  or  more  per  acre.  In  the  cattle-raising 
district  where  woodlands  are  grown,  such  areas  are  in  great  de- 
mand for  pasture.  The  unpastured  woodland  is  rare.  Shade  is 
a  distinct  asset  in  the  raising  of  livestock,  whether  it  be  of  sheep, 
cattle,  hogs,  or  other  animals.  While  the  forage  production 
under  the  tree  growth  may  not  be  of  the  best,  it  furnishes  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  feed  which  the  farmer  seldom  wastes. 

Damage  Done  to  Tree  Growth  by  Grazing.  —  As  already  men- 
tioned, the  damage  done  by  grazing  falls  into  two  main  classes  — 
browsing  and  trampling.  Broad-leaved  or  hardwood  trees,  which 
usually  occupy  farm  woodlands,  are  generally  more  palatable  to 
grazing  animals  than  is  a  stand  of  coniferous  reproduction.  The 
browsing  damage  may  consist  of  defoliation  or  of  the  cropping  of 
the  bark  and  stems  in  varying  degrees  of  seriousness.  Occasion- 
ally young  seedlings  are  uprooted  and  killed.  Trampling  packs 
the  ground  so  that  reproduction  starts  ^vith  difficulty.  Much 
trampling  may  not  only  kill  the  seedHngs,  but  it  may  also  cause 
more  or  less  damage  to  the  mature  or  larger  trees  by  exposing 
the  roots  and  packing  heavily  the  ground  around  them.  The 
amount  of  damage  done  is  generally  proportionate  to  the  in- 
tensity of  the  grazing.  The  damage  done  by  light  grazing  is 
practically  negligible. 

It  is  evident  that,  if  the  production  of  timber  alone  is  con- 
sidered, no  grazing  should  be  allowed.  For  general  purposes 
light  grazing  may  be  permitted  on  farm  woodlands  if  other 
conditions  are  favorable.     So  far  as  the  livestock  are  concerned, 


210  GRAZING  ON  WOODLANDS 

good  results  are  obtained  by  the  grazing  of  the  woods.  This  is 
true  quite  as  much  because  of  the  shade  afforded  to  the  animals 
as  of  the  forage  which  such  lands  furnish.  In  any  event,  if 
woodlands  are  to  have  a  permanent  place  on  the  farm,  the  graz- 
ing should  be  light  and  so  handled  as  to  favor  the  production  of 
timber. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  farm  woodlands  are  generally  in 
bad  condition  as  a  result  of  grazing;  especially  is  this  true  where 
the  tenant  system  of  farming  is  used.  The  tenant  is  less  partic- 
ular than  is  the  owner  about  the  damage  which  the  stock  do  to 
the  young  timber  and  to  the  protective  leaf  htter.  In  this  con- 
nection it  is  interesting  to  recall  that  over  one-third  of  the  farms 
of  the  United  States  are  occupied  by  tenants. 

EFFECT  OF  GOAT  GRAZING   ON  TIMBER  REPRODUCTION 

Although  the  grazing  of  goats  is  not  a  large  industry  in  this 
country,  it  plays  a  relatively  important  part  in  many  locahties. 
Approximately  60,000  goats  are  grazed  on  the  National  Forests 
alone,  mainly  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  Goats  are  also 
grazed  on  parts  of  certain  Forests  in  the  Northwest.  In  general, 
goats  are  regarded  as  paragons  of  cathoHc  taste  in  that  they 
browse  more  or  less  ravenously  upon  tree  reproduction  of  all 
kinds  regardless  of  the  conditions  of  the  range. 

Chaphne,^  in  an  unpublished  report,  points  out  that  goat 
grazing  is  a  much  less  serious  factor  in  the  establishment  of 
timber  reproduction  than  is  generally  supposed.  On  the  Gila 
National  Forest  in  New  Mexico,  the  light  grazing  of  the  goat 
range  in  the  yellow  pine  type  resulted  in  injury  of  10  to  13  per 
cent  of  the  reproduction.  These  figures  included  the  accumu- 
lated injury  inflicted  after  many  years  of  pasturing.  On  the 
Alamo  Forest  in  New  Mexico,  about  12.5  per  cent  of  the  yellow 
pine  reproduction  was  injured  after  many  years  of  goat  grazing. 
The  injury  was  generally  very  slight  for  yellow  pine  seedlings 
under  two  years  of  age,  nor  was  it  serious  for  seedlings  that  had 
attained  a  height  of  6  inches.     Contrary  to  expectations,  the 

1  Chapline,  W.  R.,  "EflFect  of  Goat  Grazing  upon  Tree  Reproduction."  U.  S. 
Forest  Service,  1915. 


CONCLUSIONS  OF   GENERAL  APPLICATION  21 1 

greatest  injury  occurred  in  a  stand  which  had  attained  a  height 
of  1 1  to  2 1  feet.  Pifion  pine  was  only  hghtly  cropped,  and  full 
recovery  from  the  injury  could  nearly  always  be  expected. 
Juniper,  on  the  other  hand,  is  palatable  to  goats,  and  more  than 
half  of  the  stand  was  browsed.  In  general,  it  was  found,  how- 
ever, that  yellow  pine,  pifion  pine,  and  Douglas  fir  were  not 
killed  or  seriously  injured  except  where  the  lands  were  over- 
grazed or  the  forage  was  very  closely  cropped.  Where  the  timber 
reproduction  was  seriously  injured,  the  palatable  plants  were  also 
disappearing.  In  some  places  the  coniferous  reproduction  was 
somewhat  heavily  browsed  in  the  winter,  evidently  because  of 
the  absence  of  other  more  succulent  vegetation. 

In  general,  goats  browse  upon  a  larger  number  of  timber 
species  than  do  other  classes  of  stock.  Because  much  of  that 
vegetation  is  fairly  palatable  to  goats,  they  are  liable  to  cause 
more  damage  to  timber  reproduction,  other  things  being  equal, 
than  do  other  classes  of  domestic  foraging  animals. 

CONCLUSIONS  BASED    ON   INVESTIGATIONS 

The  conclusions  developed  from  the  studies  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes  —  (i)  those  of  general  application,  and  (2)  those 
that  are  applicable  to  certain  regions.^ 

Conclusions  of  General  Application.  —  i .  Overgrazing  or  bad 
handling  of  any  class  of  stock  may  result  in  injury  to  tree  repro- 
duction in  varying  degrees  of  seriousness.  In  general,  over- 
grazing by  sheep  and  goats  causes  greater  damage  than  does 
destructive  cropping  by  horses  and  cattle.  Injury  to  the  repro- 
duction by  horses  and  cattle  is  seldom  serious. 

2.  Goats  are  inclined  to  browse  upon  a  larger  number  of  timber 
species  than  do  other  classes  of  stock  and  may  cause  more  damage 
than  do  other  domestic  foraging  animals. 

3.  Where  a  good  seed  crop  of  the  timber  stand  is  produced, 
large  areas  often  support  a  good  stand  of  young  timber  growth 
notwithstanding  moderate  grazing  each  year  by  the  various 
classes  of  stock. 

1  Jardine,  J.  T.,  "Efficient  Regulation  of  Grazing  in  Relation  to  Timber  Repro- 
duction."    Jour,  of  Forestry,  Vol.  18,  No.  4,  pp.  379-381,  1920. 


212  GRAZING  ON   WOODLANDS 

4.  Topographic  features,  the  season  of  grazing,  the  type  of 
forage,  and  the  way  in  which  the  animals  are  handled  are  the 
most  important  factors  that  determine  the  degree  of  injury  to 
tree  reproduction. 

5.  Damage  to  the  tree  reproduction  and,  indeed,  to  other 
vegetation  must  be  expected  on  stock  driveways  or  trails  which 
are  used  annually  as  such  for  several  seasons  in  succession.  Ac- 
cordingly, such  driveways  should  be  located  where  the  timber 
is  sparse  or  inferior,  or  where  they  will  be  of  value  in  protecting 
the  forest  from  destruction  by  fires. 

Conclusions  of  Regional  Application.  —  i.  Because  of  the 
rigorous  climatic  conditions  in  the  Southwest,  notably  in  Arizona, 
New  Mexico,  and  southern  Utah,  the  better  cut-over  forest  lands 
should  not  be  grazed  by  sheep  and  goats  until  a  satisfactory 
stand  of  reproduction,  much  of  it  about  3I  feet  in  height,  has 
been  secured. 

2.  As  a  rule  it  is  safe  to  graze  cattle  and  horses  lightly  on  cut- 
over  or  other  potential  forest  lands  during  the  period  required 
for  reforestation. 

3.  In  the  Northwest,  notably  in  Washington,  Oregon,  northern 
California,  and  Idaho,  a  satisfactory  stand  of  young  timber 
growth  may  be  expected  wherever  good  grazing  management  is 
applied,  regardless  of  the  class  of  stock  grazed.  The  tree  repro- 
duction is  generally  satisfactory  in  Montana,  Wyoming,  and 
Colorado,  provided  the  grazing  is  not  destructive. 

4.  Where  trees  have  been  artificially  planted,  or  where,  al- 
though the  timber  reproduction  is  greatly  desired,  the  stand  may 
be  unsatisfactory,  the  area,  regardless  of  the  locaHty,  should  be 
closed  to  grazing  until  a  satisfactory  stand  is  obtained. 

5.  From-^spen  range  on  which  it  is  desired  to  perpetuate  the 
aspen  cover,  sheep  and  goats  should  be  excluded  for  at  least 
three  years  after  the  cutting.  The  damage  to  aspen  reproduc- 
tion from  moderate  cattle  grazing  is  practically  negligible; 
hence  cattle  may  be  grazed  on  cut-over  aspen  lands  until  the 
sprouts  have  attained  a  height  growth  sufficient  to  make  them 
exempt  from  serious  injury  by  sheep  grazing.  This  usually 
requires  three  years  after  cutting. 


QUESTIONS  213 

APPLICATION  OF  STUDIES  TO  GRAZING  MANAGEMENT 
In  the  application  of  the  conclusions  set  forth  it  is  necessary 
to  take  many  factors  into  account.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  demand  for  forage  in  a  given  community,  the  acces- 
sibility of  and  demand  for  the  timber,  when  the  timber  may  be 
cut,  the  condition  of  the  range,  and  the  palatability  of  the  princi- 
pal timber  species  to  the  different  classes  of  stock. 

Jardine  ^  has  pointed  out  that,  except  for  total  protection  from 
grazing,  the  judicious  management  of  the  forage  crop  and  the 
protection  of  tree  reproduction  are  the  first  essentials  of  efficient 
regulation  in  grazing.  In  order  to  apply  the  conclusions  uni- 
formly to  actual  practice,  it  is  necessary,  first,  so  to  standardize 
grazing  use  that  the  terms  "  light,"  "  moderate,"  and  ''  close  " 
grazing  will  have  a  definite  meaning.  As  yet  this  has  not  been 
done.  Because  of  the  variation  in  grazing  capacity  and  forage 
types,  the  lands  may  vary  widely  as  to  the  number  of  stock  they 
will  support;  hence  the  provision  of  a  given  number  of  acres  per 
animal  can  not  be  the  same  everywhere.  Furthermore,  the 
density  of  reproduction  required  for  the  development  of  a  full 
stand  of  timber  is  not  known.  The  requirement  will  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  species  and  the  growth  conditions. 

Although  broad  unification,  both  of  grazing  use  and  of  the 
requirements  for  a  satisfactory  timber  cover,  is  important,  those 
problems  are  essentially  local  in  character.  Proper  stocking  of 
the  lands,  good  distribution  of  the  stock,  avoidance  of  too  early 
grazing,  and  the  use  of  the  forage  by  the  proper  class  or  classes 
of  stock  will  do  much  to  prevent  damage  to  the  tree  reproduction. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  (a)  To  what  extent  is  aspen  palatable  (i)  to  sheep,  and  (2)  to  cattle? 
(b)  To  what  extent  is  yellow  pine  palatable  (i)  in  the  Northwest,  (2)  in  the 
Southwest? 

2.  {a}  To  what  extent  do  sheep  injure  yellow  pine  reproduction  within 
their  reach  (i)  on  closely  grazed  range,  and  (2)  on  that  moderately  grazed? 
(b)  To  what  extent  do  they  injure  aspen  reproduction? 

^  Jardine,  J.  T.,  "Efficient  Regulation  of  Grazing  in  Relation  to  Timber  Repro- 
duction."    Jour,  of  Forestry,  Vol.  18,  No.  4,  pp.  380,  381,  1920. 


214  GRAZING  ON   WOODLANDS 

3.  To  what  height  can  sheep  ordinaril\-  crop  tree  reproduction,  and  at 
what  height  is  the  stand  exempt  from  serious  injur\'  from  sheep  grazing? 

4.  \\Tiere  the  cover  is  extensive  and  where  there  has  been  moderate  grazing 
for  a  number  of  years  by  cattle  only,  to  what  extent  has  the  young  growth 
been  injured? 

5.  To  what  extent  does  the  amount  of  palatable  feed  available  determine 
the  injur)'  to  tree  reproduction  on  cattle  range?    On  sheep  range? 

6.  Under  ordinar\'  conditions,  is  serious  injurv'  to  tree  reproduction  on 
cattle  range  confined  to  places  where  the  animals  congregate,  or  is  the  damage 
more  or  less  uniform  throughout  the  type? 

7.  (a)  How  would  you  handle  the  grazing  so  as  to  insure  a  satisfactory 
stand  of  reproduction  on  cut-over  aspen  lands  where  sheep  are  grazed? 
(b)  How  would  you  handle  cattle  grazing  under  the  same  conditions?  (c)  How 
would  }-ou  obtain  a  satisfactory  stand  of  yellow  pine  on  cut-over  bunchgrass 
lands  grazed  by  sheep? 

8.  How  may  grazing  and  the  establishment  of  stock  driveways  foster  the 
establishment  and  protection  of  a  satisfactory  stand  of  timber  reproduction? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chapline,  W.  R.  Production  of  Goats  on  Far  Western  Ranges.  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  749,  1919. 

CowLLE,  Frederick  V.  Forest  Growth  and  Sheep  Grazing  in  the  Cascade 
Mountains  of  Oregon.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Forestry,  Bui. 
15-  1898. 

Graves,  Henry  S.  Grazing  and  Fires  in  National  Forests.  Amer.  For- 
estry, Vol.  17,  No.  7,  191 1. 

Hill,  Robert  R.  Effects  of  Grazing  upon  Western  Yellow  Pine  Repro- 
duction in  the  National  Forests  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  580,  1917. 

Jardine,  James  T.     Efficient  Regulation  of  Grazing  in  Relation  to  Timber 
Reproduction.     Jour,  of  Forestry,  Vol.  18,  No.  4,  1920. 
The  Pasturage  System  of  Handling  Range  Sheep.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 
Forest  Service,  Cir.  178,  1910. 

Mason,  D.  T.  Utilization  and  Management  of  Lodgepole  Pine  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  234,  19x5. 

MuNGER,  T.  T.  Western  Yellow  Pine  in  Oregon.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui. 
418,  1917. 

Pearson,  G.  A.  Reproduction  of  Western  Yellow  Pine  in  the  Southwest. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Forest  Service,  Cir.  174,  1910. 

Sampson,  Arthur  W.  Effect  of  Grazing  upon  Aspen  Reproduction. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  741,  1919. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  215 

Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  and  Dayton,  William  A.  Relation  of  Grazing  to 
Timber  Reproduction,  Shasta  National  Forest.  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.,  Forest  Service,  Review  of  Forest  Service  Investigations, 
Vol.  2,  1913. 

Sparhawk,  W.  N.  Effect  of  Grazing  upon  Western  Yellow  Pine  Reproduc- 
tion in  Central  Idaho.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  738,  1918. 


CHAPTER  XI 

BURNING  OF  PASTURE  LANDS  AND  ITS    EFFECTS  ON 
FORAGE   PRODUCTION 

The  grandeur  and  the  awfulness  of  a  great  range  and  forest 
fire  which  occurred  a  few  years  ago  in  the  Blue  Mountains  of 
northeastern  Oregon  left  on  the  author's  mind  an  impression 
never  to  be  forgotten.  As  seen  from  the  summit  of  a  hill  the 
sight  surpassed  even  the  stately  beauty  of  virgin  forests  of  pine, 
spruce,  and  hemlock.  The  whole  landscape,  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  reach,  was  covered  with  a  white  sea  of  smoke  clouds.  The 
atmosphere  had  taken  on  a  golden  yellow  hue,  and  in  the  heavens 
appeared  the  pale  outline  of  the  lonely  sun.  One  moment  the 
angry  flames  were  carried  high  above  the  uppermost  branches 
of  the  mammoth  trees;  the  next  moment  all  was  hidden  by  the 
ever-forming  clouds  of  smoke  (Fig.  71).  When  the  smoke  had 
subsided  sufficiently  to  allow  the  first  hazy  view  of  the  land,  what 
a  panorama  of  ruin  to  behold!  The  transformation  that  had 
been  effected  in  a  few  hours  was  so  complete  that  nature  would 
require  centuries  to  recover  her  lost  splendor  (Fig.  72). 

The  devastation  caused  by  many  of  these  fires  cannot  be 
estimated  in  a  pecuniary  way.  On  heavily  forested  lands  the 
effects  of  a  single  fire  are  felt  for  centuries.  On  range  and  pasture 
lands  repeated  fires  generally  have  quite  as  serious  results  as 
severe  overgrazing.  On  both  kinds  of  lands  the  fires  ultimately 
destroy  the  plant  cover  and  are  followed  by  erosion  of  varying 
degrees  of  destructiveness. 

History  of  Burning.  —  It  is  probable  that  fires  on  prairie  and 
woodland  have  occurred  ever  since  there  was  a  luxuriant  growth 
of  vegetation.  Evidence  of  fires  may  be  found  in  coal  formations, 
and  substances  resembling  charred  wood  and  other  plant  parts 
have  been  unearthed  in  the  subcarboniferous  sandstone  in  some 
localities.^     There  is  undeniable  evidence  from  the  fire  scars  on 

*  Plummer,  Fred  G.,  "Forest  Fires."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Forest  Service  Bui. 
117,  p.  7,  1912. 

216 


HISTORY  OF  BURNING  217 

the  California  bigtrees,  of  fires  in  the  eighteenth,  sixteenth,  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  and  it  also  appears  that  terrific  fires  occurred 
there  as  early  as  245  A.D.  Occasionally  fires  originated  from 
falling  meteors;  many  were  set  by  lightning;  and  in  the  early 
days  a  vast  number  were  started  by  the  Indians,  who  burned 
extensive  prairie  and  forest  lands  before  the  country  was  settled 


(Forest  Service.) 
Fig.  71.  — a  woodland   PASTURE  FIRE  IN  NORTHEASTERN  OREGON. 
The  whole  landscape  was  covered  with  white  clouds  of  smoke. 

by  the  white  men.^  The  chief  object  of  the  practice  appears 
to  have  been  to  bring  about  a  fresh  growth  of  grass  in  the  autumn 
upon  which  numerous  game  animals  and  wild  fowl  would  gather 
for  feed,  thus  making  it  easy  for  the  Indians  to  secure  their 
winter's  meat  supply.  Fires  were  also  set  for  the  purpose  of 
killing  and  roasting  for  food  the  great  quantities  of  grasshoppers 
that  nearly  every  year  feasted  on  the  tender  growth  of  grass. 
Cabeza  de  Vaca-  states  that  in  Arkansas  about  1535  "they 

1  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Concerning  Forest  Fires."  Breeder's  Gazette,  Sept. 
13,  1911,  pp.  429,  430. 

'■  Narrative  of  Alvar  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  "Naufragios,  peregrinaciones  y 
milagros,"  translated  by  B.  Smith,  p.  64,  1851. 


2l8 


BURNING  OF  PASTURE   LANDS 


[the  Indians]  take  the  pasturage  from  cattle  [buffaloes]  by  burn- 
ing, that  necessity  may  drive  them  to  seek  in  such  places  as  it  is 
wished  they  would  go."  Bell,'  Plummer,'  and  others  ascribe  to 
fires  the  treelessness  and  the  poor  vegetation  of  certain  localities 
of  the  Great  Plains  region  and  the  Middle  States.  Bonneville^ 
points  out  that  the  hunters  had  the  greatest  difficulty  in  starting 


(Forest  Senice.) 

Fig.  72.  — the    FIRE-SWEPT   AREA    IS    LEFT    PRACTICALLY    DEVOID    OF    PLANT 
AND  ANIMAL   LIFE. 

Nature  cannot  rerover  in  centuries  the  splendor  and  the  money  value  so  soon  destroyed. 

fires  on  the  meadows  along  the  Platte  River  because  of  the  sparse- 
ness  and  short  stature  of  the  grass.  It  is  recorded  of  the  abo- 
rigines in  various  parts  of  the  West  that  they  kept  vast  tracts  of 
forest  lands  denuded  of  timber  as  a  result  of  setting  fires  for 
hunting.  White  hunters  and  trappers  continued  the  practice  of 
setting  fires.  Later  the  influx  of  settlers  and  the  widespread 
custom  of  burning  over  land  to  get  rid  of  timber,  brush,  or  other 

^  "History  of  California,"  Vol.  I,  p.  41,  1758. 

2  Plummer,  Fred  G.,  "Forest  Fires."     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Forest  Service,  Bui. 
117,  p.  8,  1912. 

3  Irving,  Washington,  "Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville,"  Pawnee  Edition, 
Vol.  I,  p.  45 


A  COMMON  DELUSION  219 

cover,  preparatory  to  cultivation,  greatly  increased  the  number 
of  forest  and  prairie  fires  which  were  started.  As  competition 
for  forage  increased  and  range  wars  came  into  existence,  fire  was 
used  with  great  effectiveness,  both  by  cattlemen  and  sheepmen, 
to  drive  rival  factions  out  of  the  country  by  destroying  their 
range. 

It  is  clear  that  in  the  early  days  burning  off  the  vegetation 
was  a  common  practice.  The  fires  undoubtedly  extended  over 
enormous  areas  and  varied  in  intensity  according  to  the  amount 
of  inflammable  material,  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  and  certain 
other  conditions.  As  a  result,  according  to  the  best  available 
records,  the  general  appearance  of  the  lands  and  the  type  of 
plant  life  which  they  supported  were  greatly  changed. 

Present-Day  Burning.  —  The  rapid  settlement  of  the  country 
and  a  greater  appreciation  of  the  value  of  forage,  as  well  as  an 
ever-increasing  dependence  upon  the  forage,  have  materially 
reduced  the  number  of  fires  and  the  damage  from  them  on  all 
types  of  land.  Seriously  destructive  fires,  however,  still  occur 
in  many  parts  of  the  country.  According  to  the  best  available 
estimates,  an  average  of  approximately  13,969,000  acres  were 
burned  over  annually  in  1916,  191 7,  and  1918,  representing  a 
yearly  loss  of  about  $20,727,000.  Since  most  of  this  area  sup- 
ports a  considerable  amount  of  forage  upon  which  Hvestock  is 
grazed,  it  is  apparent  that  this  industry  is  greatly  affected  by  the 
fires. 

With  the  exception  of  certain  sections  in  the  South,  most  of 
the  present-day  fires  occur  on  forested  lands,  where,  in  the  main, 
they  originate  by  accident.  The  practice  of  the  willful  setting 
of  fires  each  year  is  still  prevalent  in  many  sections  of  the  South, 
especially  where  the  grasses  and  brush  make  a  very  robust 
growth.  Burning  of  heavy  growths  of  brush  or  chaparral  areas 
is  also  resorted  to  more  or  less  in  certain  parts  of  the  far  West, 
particularly  in  California. 

A  Common  Delusion.  —  "  Don't  let  'em  pull  the  wool  over 
your  eyes,"  was  the  remark  of  an  experienced  and  practical 
farmer-stockman  in  eastern  Nebraska  as  he  "  wet  blanketed  " 
the  flames  along  a  grassy  roadside  adjacent  to  his  native-grass 


220  BURNING  OF  PASTURE  LANDS 

meadow.  "  This  fire  isn't  goin'  to  eat  up  my  good  old  hay  land 
again.  For  years,  as  a  young  farmer,  I  looked  forward  with 
much  pleasure  to  the  burnin'  job,  and  for  as  many  years  I  paid 
the  price  for  this  pastime,  and  a  handsome  price  it  was  too. 
While  I  was  pasturin'  the  land  I  didn't  realize  how  every  year 
I  was  bein'  robbed  of  a  good  forage  crop.  It  wasn't  until  I  got 
to  puttin'  the  grass  into  the  haystack  and  keepin'  track  of  the 
loads  that  it  dawned  upon  me  that  I  had  been  '  pulUn'  the 
wool  over  my  own  eyes.'  Since  I  quit  burnin'  off  what  little 
second  growth  there  happened  to  be  the  yields  have  been  much 
larger,  especially  in  dry  years." 

Some  of  the  most  persistent  beHefs  favoring  burning  are  (i) 
that  the  character  of  the  herbage  and  browse  is  generally  much 
improved  by  annual  firing;  (2)  that  burning  brings  about  early 
spring  growth,  and  that  the  forage  produced  is  more  palatable 
than  where  the  lands  are  not  fired;  (3)  that  the  productivity  of 
the  soil  is  greatly  increased  through  the  Hberation  of  the  lime, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  contained  in  the  ash;  and  (4)  that, 
because  of  the  alleged  increased  density  in  the  plant  cover  after 
a  burn,  the  watershed  value  of  a  drainage  area  is  greatly  enhanced 
for  irrigation  purposes  and  for  navigation.  These  popular  beliefs 
are  in  general  without  foundation. 

In  the  absence  of  the  old  growth  the  first  appearance  of  green 
vegetation  is  clearly  discernible,  and  one  may  readily  get  the 
impression  that  the  growth  after  a  fire  is  not  only  exceptionally 
early  but  that  a  bumper  yield  is  being  produced.  This  is  by 
no  means  substantiated  by  facts. 

Some  of  the  other  arguments  in  favor  of  burning,  in  the  absence 
of  thorough-going  investigations,  are  difficult  to  disprove.  In- 
deed, in  certain  restricted  localities  in  the  South,  periodic  burning 
under  some  conditions  may  possibly  be  justified.  However, 
many  a  stockman-farmer,  like  the  Nebraskan,  has  observed  that 
the  argument  in  favor  of  burning  takes  into  account  only  the 
immediate  use  of  the  pasture.  To  consider  merely  the  benefits 
that  may  doubtfully  be  enjoyed  —  say  for  one  or  two  seasons  — 
obviously  is  poor  economics.  Among  other  things  one  must 
keep  in  mind  the  effect  which  fires  inevitably  have  on  the  pro- 


EFFECTS  OF   BURNING  ON    FORAGE    PRODUCTION         221 

ductivity  of  the  soil  and  the  continued  production  of  forage; 
on  the  perpetuation  and  healthy  growth  of  the  choicest  and  most 
valuable  plants;  and,  on  mountain  lands  especially,  on  the 
efficiency  of  the  watershed  for  irrigation  and  on  the  supply  of 
water  for  domestic  purposes  as  well  as  for  navigation. 

EFFECTS   OF  BURNING   ON   FORAGE   PRODUCTION 

The  vegetation  that  remains  on  the  ground  at  the  end  of  the 
season  performs  three  unportant  functions,  (i)  It  enriches  the 
soil  by  the  addition  of  humus  and  nitrogenous  matter  made 
available  through  the  decomposition  of  the  roots  and  aerial 
parts  of  the  vegetation.  (2)  The  humus  in  turn  creates  a  sponge- 
like condition  in  the  upper  soil  layer  which  increases  its  capacity 
to  absorb  water  as  it  is  received,  thus  making  a  maximum  amount 
of  water  available  for  absorption  by  plant  life  during  the  dry 
part  of  the  season.  (3)  Whatever  old  Vegetation  remains  after  a 
proper  season  of  grazing,  because  it  acts  more  or  less  as  a  mulch 
on  the  soil  surface,  decreases  the  evaporation  from  the  soil  and 
thereby  conserves  the  moisture  for  plant  growth.  At  the  same 
time  the  semi-decomposed  vegetable  matter  helps  to  prevent 
the  soil  from  baking.  Hence  it  acts  as  a  regulator  of  the  temper- 
ature and  evaporation,  both  of  which  are  controlhng  factors  in 
the  development  of  plant  Hfe.  An  area  upon  which  the  soil  is 
exposed  is  sometimes  subject  to  such  wide  and  sudden  fluctua- 
tions in  temperature  and  moisture  content  that  the  vegetation 
which  it  supports,  being  often  killed  or  seriously  injured,  is  re- 
placed by  more  drought-enduring  plants.  On  the  other  hand, 
on  areas  whose  soil  fertility  is  high,  and  whose  surface  is  partly 
protected  by  plant  remnants  from  excessive  evaporation,  there 
is  found  a  stable  and  luxuriant  type  of  vegetation,  generally  the 
most  profitable  type  the  area  is  capable  of  producing. 

It  is  contended  that  the  only  way  to  maintain  in  the  soil  the 
mineral  and  organic  matter  absorbed  by  the  plant  cover  is  to 
return  to  mother  earth  in  the  form  of  ash,  as  large  a  proportion 
of  these  constituents  as  is  possible.  Burning  what  vegetation 
remains  at  the  end  of  the  growing  (grazing)  season  obviously 
defeats  this  plan  and  at  once  upsets  the  natural  balance  between 


2  22  BURNING   OF  PASTURE   LANDS 

the  essential  plant- food  elements  in  the  soil  and  the  physical 
and  chemical  requirements  of  growing  vegetation.  It  is  true 
that  close  grazing  year  after  year,  as  compared  with  nonuse  of 
the  lands,  also  tends  to  reduce  somewhat  the  elements  that  would 
be  returned  to  the  soil;  but  this  is  largely  ofifset  by  the  fertilizing 
value  of  the  manure.  From  65  to  80  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  contained  in  the  forage  consumed 
is  returned  to  the  land  in  this  form.^  Accordingly,  if  the  forage 
stand  is  properly  maintained,  the  soil  constituents  essential  to 
the  proper  development  of  plant  growth  are  always  present. 

Effect  of  Burning  Grasslands.  —  Some  who  advocate  the 
burning  of  grasslands  concede  the  point  that  the  productivity 
of  the  soil  cannot  be  maintained  if  frequent  burning  is  practiced, 
yet  they  insist  that  the  present  stand  of  perennial  grasses  may  be 
maintained  indefinitely.  The  facts  do  not  bear  out  this  con- 
tention. To  say  that  a  change  takes  place  in  the  productive 
capacity  of  the  soil  but  not  in  the  surface  cover  is  contrary  to 
some  of  the  most  widely  tested  laws  of  plant  succession  and  de- 
velopment known  to  the  scientist  as  well  as  to  the  observing 
practical  stockman. 

Griffiths,-  in  a  discussion  of  the  efTect  of  burning  in  the  Great 
Basin  region,  says:  "  Fire  has  a  direct  influence  upon  the  con- 
dition of  the  feed.  Burning  is  as  destructive  to  the  grass  of  the 
range  as  to  the  trees  of  the  forest." 

Burning  in  the  East,  Middle  West,  and  Far  West.  —  Observa- 
tions made  in  various  investigations  in  the  East,  the  middle 
West,  and  the  far  West  have  convinced  the  writer  that  the  effect 
of  burning  is  practically  as  destructive  to  the  forage  cover  as  to 
the  soil  —  that  the  two  are  virtually  inseparable.  As  a  rule, 
the  burning  of  grasslands  is  done  in  the  fall  or  early  spring  when 
the  vegetation  is  quite  inflammable.  Over  most  of  the  area  the 
forage  cures  well  on  the  ground  so  that  it  has  considerable  value 
as  feed  throughout  the  winter.     Therefore,  the  loss  of  the  forage 

1  Warren,  G.  F.,  "Farm  Management,"  pp.  196-198.  The  Macmillan  Co., 
N.  Y.,  1913. 

-  Griffiths,  David,  "Forage  Conditions  on  the  Northern  Border  of  the  Great 
Basin."    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  15,  p.  31,  1902. 


EFFECT  OF  BURNING  GRASSLANDS  223 

by  burning  is  in  itself  often  serious.  The  more  important  loss, 
however,  is  in  the  reduction  of  the  forage  yield  later. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  more  shallow-rooted  forage  and  hay 
plants,  as,  for  instance,  the  fescues  (Festuca)  and  the  bluegrasses 
(Poa),  is  often  killed  outright  by  a  single  fire.  Almost  invari- 
ably highly  prized  perennial  forage  plants  of  this  type  are  re- 
placed for  a  varying  period  of  time  by  inferior  and  unpalatable 
vegetation.  Furthermore,  in  the  absence  of  the  old  leafage, 
which,  when  present,  is  cropped  as  a  "  filler,"  there  is  a  tendency 
to  graze  the  young  succulent  growth  so  closely  as  to  injure  its 
later  development.  Any  advantages  that  may  follow  the  re- 
moval of  the  old  growth  by  burning  —  as,  for  example,  making 
the  newly  developing  crop  more  readily  accessible  for  grazing  — 
are,  therefore,  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  disadvantages. 

Burning  in  the  SoiUh.  —  In  many  parts  of  the  South  where  the 
predominating  grasses  attain  a  robust  growth  the  lands  have 
been  burned  over  each  year  since  the  country  was  settled.  For 
instance,  the  piney- woods  region  of  the  Coastal  Plain,  (which 
includes  South  Carolina;  Florida;  the  southern  parts  of  Georgia, 
Alabama,  and  Mississippi;  the  central  and  northern  parts  of 
Louisiana;  parts  of  southern  Texas;  and  southern  Arkansas), 
much  of  the  native  range  lands,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
privately  owned  pastures  have  been  burned  over  each  year  from 
the  time  before  the  Civil  War  when  the  turpentine  operations 
began.  To  protect  the  trees  from  accidental  fires  the  leaf  htter 
and  other  inflammable  material  is  raked  away  from  the  base  of 
the  trees  and  burned  under  control.  Follo^Adng  this  operation, 
the  stockmen  fire  the  range  according  to  the  time-honored 
custom. 

The  practice  of  burning  over  the  range  year  after  year  for  so 
long  a  time  has  depleted  the  potential  productivity  of  the  soil  to 
an  extent  difficult  to  estimate.  By  far  the  most  important  soil 
problem  in  the  South  is  that  of  maintaining  adequate  organic 
matter.  In  regions  with  long  growing  seasons  an  enormous 
amount  of  organic  matter  is  used  up  in  normal  decay.  To 
rob  the  soil  by  burning  off  this  potential  and  much-needed  vege- 
table  matter   further    compUcates    the    all-important    fertility 


224  BURNING  OF  PASTURE  LANDS 

problem  and,  at  the  same  time,  favors  that  very  serious  menace 
to  the  lands  of  the  South  —  soil  erosion. 

If  a  pasture  has  been  burned  year  after  year,  the  soil  is  in 
about  as  low  a  state  of  productivity  as  can  well  be  imagined. 
The  forage  is  not  only  of  an  inferior  type  as  compared  with  that 
of  nonburned  areas,  but  it  is  much  shorter  in  stature  and  is 
appreciably  sparser  than  on  the  fire-protected  and  more  fertile 
areas. 

Farley  and  Greene,^  as  a  result  of  their  investigations  of  pas- 
ture management  in  the  piney  woods,  say: 

Another  effect  of  frequent  fires  on  native  pasture  has  been  to  keep  out  the 
desirable  pasture  grasses  and  perpetuate  the  undesirable  ones.  Wire  grass 
and  broom  sedge  have  been  able  to  withstand  fires  to  such  an  extent  that 
they  have  almost  taken  possession  of  the  cut-over  lands.  These  plants, 
although  furnishing  most  of  the  grazing,  are  undesirable  because  of  their 
short  grazing  season,  and  are  no  better  adapted,  except  in  their  ability  to 
withstand  fire,  than  carpet  grass  and  lespedeza,  the  two  most  valuable  pasture 
plants  found  on  the  range.     .     .     . 

Although  carpet  grass  is  a  perennial  that  stands  close  grazing,  it  is  very 
susceptible  to  fire.  The  seed  is  matured  late  in  the  fall,  and  the  plant  is  still 
growing  at  the  time  of  fall  fires.  In  the  spring,  the  tender,  creeping  stocks 
are  not  protected  to  the  same  degree  as  are  the  clumps  of  wire  grass  and  broom 
sedge. 

The  more  experienced  and  successful  stockmen  of  the  South 
have  abandoned  burning  off  the  grass  cover  annually.  They 
fully  appreciate  in  terms  of  production  of  future  crops  the  loss 
such  practices  entail  and  are  doing  what  they  can  to  build  up 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  order  to  increase,  rather  than  diminish, 
their  grass,  timber,  and  farm  crops.  Where  the  grasses  produce 
such  a  rank  cover  as  seriously  to  interfere  with  the  grazing  of 
the  season's  growth,  the  lands  are  fired  once  every  three  to  live 
years.  This  rotation  allows  a  considerable  part  of  the  vegetable 
matter  to  decompose,  and  at  the  same  time  is  said  to  enhance  the 
utilization  of  the  feed.  However,  even  intermittent  burning 
destroys  a  large  portion  of  carpetgrass  and  other  valuable  forage 
plants.     Generally,  the  less  burning  done  the  better  is  the  forage 

1  Farley,  F.  W.,  and  Greene,  S.  W.,  "The  Cut-over  Pine  Lands  of  the  South  for 
Beef-Cattle  Production."  U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Animal  Ind.,  Bui.  827, 
p.  25,  1921. 


EFFECT   OF  BURNING   BRUSHLANDS  225 

Stand.  Where,  however,  the  timber  growth  is  so  luxuriant  as 
to  supplant  the  grass  cover,  periodic  burning  appears  to  be 
justified. 

Annual  burning  of  grasslands  has  no  place  in  judicious  range 
or  pasture  management.^  It  usually  requires  many  years  for 
closely  burned  and,  more  especially,  for  repeatedly  burned  grass- 
lands to  regain  their  original  productiveness  and  yield  their 
normal  type  of  vegetation.  Immediately  after  a  fire,  erosion, 
which  follows  the  destruction  of  a  large  part  of  the  soil-binding 
roots,  often  causes  serious  soil  depletion.  As  a  consequence  the 
forage  production  may  be  materially  reduced  for  an  indefinite 
period. 

Effect  of  Burning  Brushlands.  —  The  effect  of  burning  typical 
brush  or  chaparral  lands  has  long  been  a  much-mooted  point. 
Many  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  firing  of  a  brush  field  results  in 
materially  increasing  for  years  to  come  the  stand  of  grasses  and 
other  herbaceous  forage  plants.  Unfortunately  this  is  not  the 
case. 

Instead  of  killing  off  the  brush  on  grazing  lands,  the  ultimate 
effect  of  fires  is  generally  to  increase  it.  Although  the  brush  may 
be  burned  down,  chaparral  vegetation  usually  puts  forth  an 
increased  number  of  shoots  from  the  plant's  crown,  stumps,  and 
roots,  and  these  often  occupy  more  space  than  did  the  ones  that 
were  killed.  In  some  places  ranges  which  formerly  were  prac- 
tically free  of  brush  have  become,  because  of  repeated  fires,  so 
thick  with  unpalatable  bush  growth  that  from  this  cause  alone 
their  value  has  greatly  decreased.  Soon  after  the  firing  of  a 
brush  field  there  is  usually  an  appreciable  increase  in  the  stand 
of  herbaceous  plants,  some  of  which  are  palatable  to  stock. 
Heavily  burned  chaparral  lands  in  California,  for  instance,  some 
of  which  have  been  fired  by  the  United  States  Forest  Service 
under  careful  control,  have  been  invaded  by  a  great  variety  of 
annual  and  perennial  herbaceous  plants  during  the  first  three 
years  or  thereabouts  following  the  fire.  But  these  plants  gradu- 
ally die  out,  and,  after  about  the  fifth  year,  the  area  is  occupied 

»  Sampson,    Arthur    W.,     "Burning    Hay    Meadows    and    Pasture    Lands." 
Breeder's  Gazette,  p.  352,  Aug.  31,  1910. 


226  BURNING   OF   PASTURE   LANDS 

by  brush,  which  is  usually  of  a  denser  stand  than  that  before  the 
fire. 

Each  summer  between  1907  and  191 2  the  author  had  occasion, 
in  the  Blue  Mountains  of  northeastern  Oregon,  to  observe  the 
development  of  the  plant  cover  after  fires  of  varying  seriousness 
on  different  types  of  range.  Notes  t^ken  at  that  time  show  that 
as  a  result  of  a  single  fire  on  densely  covered  brush  areas  where 
willow  (Salix),  buckthorn  (Ceanothus),  black  sagebrush  {Arle- 
misia),  mountain  mahogany  (Cercocarpus),  and  serviceberry 
(Amelanchier)  predominated,  this  vegetation,  much  of  which  was 
highly  palatable  to  sheep,  was  destroyed  temporarily,  and  the 
grazing  capacity  was  greatly  lowered.  The  first  three  years 
after  the  fire  a  great  variety  of  herbaceous  plants  became  estab- 
lished, few  of  which  rank  high  as  forage.  The  following  peren- 
nials were  among  the  more  conspicuous  species:  Fireweed 
(Chamaenerion),  lousewort  {Pedicular is),  meadow  rue  {Thalic- 
trum),  mountain  bromegrass  (Bromus),  aconite  (Aconitum), 
goldenrod  (Solidago),  and  everlasting  (Antennaria) .  The  cover 
as  a  whole  was  all  but  useless  for  grazing  purposes.  In  addition, 
there  were  several  annuals,  among  which  Douglas  knotweed 
(Polygonum),  Androsace,  shepherd's-purse  (Bursa),  and  downy 
bromegrass  (Bromus)  predominated.  Practically  all  of  these 
plants  are  relatively  drought-enduring  and  are  able  to  develop 
and  perpetuate  themselves  on  an  inferior  soil  type  —  a  soil 
whose  water-holding  capacity,  according  to  tests  carefully  con- 
ducted by  the  writer,  was  appreciably  reduced  by  the  fire.  After 
the  third  year  the  more  aggressive  and  hardy  shrubs  (in  this  test, 
species  that  were  not  palatable  to  stock)  rapidly  reoccupied  the 
ground.  The  fifth  year  after  the  fire  there  was,  on  the  whole, 
an  impenetrable  tangle  of  chaparral  which  had  little  or  no  value 
as  browse. 

Oftentimes,  especially  on  heavily  timbered  areas  where  the 
heat  from  the  fire  was  intense,  the  replacement  of  the  original 
cover  of  vegetation  probably  requires  as  long  a  period  as  where 
the  unchecked  action  of  erosion  has  left  its  devastating  im- 
pression. It  is  not  unusual  after  a  fire  to  find  the  soil  devoid  of 
the  all-important  nitrifying  bacteria  and  other  life  as  well  as  of 


EFFECT    OF   BURNING   BRUSHLANDS  227 

humus  content.  To  such  unproductive  soil  a  goodly  supply 
of  humus  must  be  added  before  it  can  support  a  permanent  and 
stable  type  of  valuable  forage  plants. 

The  burning  of  brushlands  has  generally  improved  neither  the 
palatable  herbaceous  nor  the  browse  crop.  Observations  also 
substantiate  the  conclusion  that  what  little  improvement  there 
may  be  in  the  forage  following  a  fire  is  only  temporary.  If  there 
is  any  improvement,  it  is  usually  more  than  offset  by  the  de- 
pletion of  the  soil  and  the  later  increased  growth  and  "  stemmi- 
ness  "  of  the  original  brush  plants  themselves,  as  well  as  by  the 
damage  to  personal  and  public  property  that  so  often  results 
from  the  lack  of  proper  fire  control. 

Goats  as  Brush  Destroyers.  —  Great  success  is  attained  in 
the  destruction  of  brush  if  goats  are  pastured  where  the  brush 
is  not  too  dense  for  the  animals  to  work  their  way  through  it. 
If  goats  are  held  long  on  an  area  whose  stand  is  sufficiently  open 
to  afford  at  least  a  moderate  cover  of  grass  and  broad-leaved 
herbs,  they  crop  the  brush  so  closely  as  to  kill  it  (Fig.  73).  At 
the  same  time  they  make  fair  economic  returns.  Like  other 
classes  of  stock,  goats  do  best  on  a  mixed  diet.  Browse  feed  is 
generally  less  succulent  than  herbaceous  vegetation,  and  there- 
fore wethers  or  dry  does  use  the  brush  feed  to  much  better  advan- 
tage than  does  and  kids,  for  the  reason  that,  if  the  kids  are  to 
make  satisfactory  growth,  the  feed  must  be  such  as  will  provide 
an  ample  mUk  supply. 

One  serious  objection  to  the  use  of  goats,  so  far  as  profit 
from  the  animals  is  concerned,  is  that,  after  some  of  the  brush 
has  been  killed,  a  considerable  part  of  the  mohair  is  pulled  out 
as  the  animals  work  their  way  through  the  stiff  dry  stems  and 
branches.  In  parts  of  Cahfornia,^  Virginia,  and  the  CaroHnas, 
and  in  certain  other  sections,  losses  resulting  from  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  mohair  have  been  so  heavy  as  to  cause  stockmen 
entirely  to  abandon  the  use  of  goats  for  brush-clearing  purposes. 
Of  course,  for  some  weeks  after  shearing  practically  no  loss  of 
mohair  is  caused  by  the  brush.     If  profit  from  the  goats  is  purely 

^  Hatton,  John  H.,  "Eradication  of  Chaparral  by  Goat  Grazing."  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.,  ReN-iew  of  Forest  Service  Investigations,   Vol.  2,  pp.  25-28,  1913. 


228 


BURNING  OF  PASTURE  LANDS 


a  secondary  matter,  these  animals  may,  in  general,  be  depended 
upon  to  kill  all  species  of  brush  whose  leafage  is  palatable  to 
them. 

Provided  erosion  is  not  started,  the  disposal  of  brush  by  grazing 
has  an  advantage  over  burning  in  that  the  soil  humus  and  decay- 


{Forest  Sereice.) 
Fig.  73— goats  ON   PALATABLE    BROWSE  MAY  CROP  SO  CLOSELY  AS  TO  KILL 
OUT  THE   COVER   IN  TWO  OR  THREE  YEARS. 

Not  uncommonly  the  bark  of  the  stems  and  lower  branches  is  closely  consumed. 

ing  vegetable  matter  are  not  destroyed.  However,  as  a  rule, 
the  soil  on  areas  overgrazed  in  this  way  is  heavily  packed  by 
trampling.  This  leaves  the  soil  in  bad  physical  tilth  and  for  a 
time  decreases  its  forage  yield;  but,  if  the  cleared  area  is  plowed, 
the  ill  effects  that  would  follow  packing  are  prevented. 

Effect  of  Burning  Wooded  Pastures  and  Forested  Ranges.  — 
On  wooded  pastures  and  forest  ranges  fires  ordinarily  cause  much 
more  damage  to  the  timber  than  to  the  forage.  On  mountain 
range  or,  indeed,  wherever  the  topography  is  broken,  the  timber, 
in  addition  to  its  monetary  value,  usually  is  of  high  importance 


BURNING  WOODED   PASTURES  AND   FORESTED   RANGES      229 

because  of  the  deterrent  effect  it  has  upon  erosion  and  as  a  ground 
cover  to  stabilize  streamfiow.  If  the  timber  and  undergrowth 
are  killed  by  fire,  not  only  is  the  financial  loss  great  but  the  danger 
of  erosion  is  much  increased.  Forest  fires  vary  all  the  way  from 
light  surface  fires  that  consume  only  the  grass  and  topmost  litter 
to  conflagrations  that  race  through  the  treetops  and  destroy 
every  vestige  of  Hfe  in  the  forest.  Upon  the  intensity  of  the  fire 
depends  the  relative  amount  of  damage  done  to  both  the  timber 
and  the  forage. 

In  general,  fires  are  destructive  to  forest  and  open  pasture 
lands  ahke  and  differ  only  in  degree.  Owing  to  the  large  amount 
of  fire  material  in  a  woodland  the  effect  upon  the  soil  is  usually 
most  serious  there.  Large  areas  are  not  uncommon  on  which 
the  soil  is  rendered  "  lifeless  "  or  virtually  sterile  (devoid  of 
humus,  bacteria,  and  earthworms)  and  for  many  years  incapable 
of  supporting  vegetation  except  of  the  most  early-maturing  and 
drought-enduring  type. 

Jacquot,^  in  discussing  the  effect  of  fires  on  vegetation,  says: 

The  extraordinarily  vigorous  growth  following  on  the  burning  of  herbaceous 
and  semi-woody  plants  would,  no  doubt,  tempt  many  people  to  a  conclusion 
favourable  to  fires  as  stimulators  of  growth.  This  exuberance,  however,  is 
merely  the  effect  of  a  temporary  stimulus;  it  is  not  sustained,  and  is  followed 
by  a  depression,  which  is  the  reverse  of  enhancement.  Chemical  decompo- 
sition in  operation  in  the  soil  provides  slowly,  but  surely  and  indefinitely,  the 
organic  products  which  the  growing  stock  assimilates  every  year.  The  fire, 
however,  at  one  operation,  effects  the  transformation  of  the  detritus  and,  so 
to  speak,  condenses  by  anticipation  the  smaU  but  certain  interests  into  an 
immediately  available  capital,  which  stimulates  for  the  moment,  but  rapidly 
disappears,  leaving  to  the  trees  only  a  minute  fraction.  The  greater  portion, 
swept  away  by  rain,  flows  into  the  subsoil  out  of  reach  of  the  absorptive 
power  of  the  enfeebled  roots.  In  a  very  few  years  there  remains  no  particle 
of  the  ashes,  and  as  the  soU  covering  has  not  had  time  to  re-establish  itself, 
the  vegetation  falls  below  its  original  condition. 

In  rare  cases,  where  deep  layers  of  arid  soil  overlie  the  subsoil,  the  products 
of  combustion  supply  an  excellent  alkaline  corrective.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  humus  is  scanty,  a  fire  is  disastrous.  In  any  case  "  fire  is  ever  a  dangerous 
auxiliary." 

1  Jacquot,  A.,  "Incendies  en  foret."  English  translation  by  C.  E.  C.  Fischer, 
p.  196,  1910. 


230  BURNING  OF  PASTURE  LANDS 

The  monetary  loss  due  to  the  destruction  of  the  original  vege- 
tation is  no  greater,  in  all  probability,  than  the  loss  of  the  soil's 
fertility.  This  fact  becomes  evident  when  the  low  produc- 
tive capacity  of  the  soil  after  it  is  burned  and  the  period  re- 
quired for  the  reestablishment  of  fertility  are  fully  taken  into 
account. 

Grazing  and  Fire  Control.  —  Careful  observations  and  study 
for  many  years  have  convinced  the  writer  that  fires  ordinarily  are 


Fig.  74.  — judicious  GRAZING  IS  HELPFUL  IN  FIRE  CONTROL. 

Not  only  is  proper  grazing  an  important  factor  in  the  control  of  fires,  but  it  greatly  increases  the 

profits  from  the  land. 

fully  as  destructive  to  the  range  as  overgrazing.  This  is  partic- 
ularly true  of  wooded  pastures  and  forested  ranges,  where  the 
monetary  loss  from  fires  is  especially  heavy.  Proper  grazing, 
however,  quite  aside  from  the  profits  it  may  directly  yield, 
greatly  reduces  the  liability  to  fires  and  the  danger  therefrom 
(Figs.  74  and  75).  Burning,  on  the  one  hand,  destroys  the 
forage  and  makes  it  unavailable  for  livestock;  grazing,  on  the 
other  hand,  utilizes  the  forage  and  prevents  it  from  becoming 
possible  fuel  for  fires.  This  latter  fact  is  seldom  fully  appreciated, 
especially  on  the  large  and  valuable  timber  holdings,  in  preparing 
plans   for  protecting   the   cover   against   fires.     The   beneficial 


GRAZING  AND  FIRE  CONTROL  23 1 

effects  of  grazing  in  fire  control  should  be  taken  advantage  of  to 
a  much  greater  extent  than  they  are  at  the  present  time.  The 
additional  revenue  derived  from  the  grazing  of  stock  would 
greatly  increase  the  benefits  to  be  obtained  from  this  means  of 
decreasing  the  fire  hazard. 

That  the  damaging  effect  of  fire  on  both  range  and  trniber 


{Forest  Service.) 

Fig.  75.  — a   dense    COVER   OF    INFLAMMABLE   MATERIAL   THROUGH   WHICH   A 
FIRE   GAINS   GREAT  HEADWAY. 

Most  of  this  herbaceous  vegetation  is  highly  palatable  to  foraging  animals. 

warrants  the  adoption  of  the  best  possible  protection  against 
burning  can  no  longer  be  subject  to  doubt.  It  is  necessary  to 
provide  effective  means  not  only  for  detecting  and  fighting  fires 
but  for  preventing  them  from  occurring.  Educating  the  public 
to  a  proper  realization  of  the  dangers  of  setting  forest  and  range 
fires,  although  a  necessary  part  of  any  fire-protection  plan, 
is  slow  and  laborious.  Well-regulated  grazing,  on  the  other 
hand,   has   the  immediate  effect  of   reducing   the   liability   of 


232  BURNING  OF  PASTURE  LANDS 

fires,  of  preventing  their  rapid  spread,  and  of  assisting  in  their 
control.^ 

In  localities  where  the  livestock  industry  is  well  developed 
and  the  range  is  in  demand,  as,  for  instance,  on  the  National 
Forests,  the  liability  of  fires  is  considerably  lessened.  This  is 
because  progressive  stockmen  realize  the  detrimental  effects  of 
fires  and  know  that  burning  may  not  only  destroy  the  forage  for 
the  season,  probably  with  heavy  financial  loss  to  themselves, 
but  that  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  range  in  future  years  will 
be  lowered.  Although  it  may  be  argued  that  the  presence  of  the 
stockmen  on  the  timbered  range  increases  the  liability  of  fires, 
because  of  carelessness  about  the  camps,  actual  experience,  as 
well  as  statistics  gathered  from  a  number  of  different  localities, 
shows  that  this  increased  liability  is  so  small  that  it  can  be  dis- 
regarded. On  the  National  Forests,  with  an  area  in  192 1  of 
136,074,266  acres  (exclusive  of  Alaska  and  Porto  Rico),  upon 
which  2,056,644  cattle  and  7,412,412  sheep  and  their  lambs 
were  grazed,  the  presence  on  the  range  of  a  large  number  of 
persons  interested  in  the  betterment  of  the  forage  crop  was 
found  to  be  a  distinct  advantage.  Not  only  do  these  men 
discover  and  report  fires  which  might  otherwise  escape  notice 
until  a  large  area  had  been  burned  over,  but  they  are  a  distinct 
help  to  the  regular  protective  force  in  the  event  of  large  fires. 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  damage  caused  by  burning  the 
range  depends  largely  upon  the  intensity  of  the  fire.  This 
factor  is  affected  by  a  number  of  conditions,  one  of  the  most 
important  of  which  is  the  amount  of  inflammable  material 
present.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  where  the  forage  on  any 
area  is  fully  utilized  there  will  be  less  danger  of  fires  starting; 
or,  if  they  do  occur,  they  will  have  less  fuel  to  feed  on  and  conse- 
quently will  burn  more  slowly  and  with  less  intensity  and  damage 
than  on  areas  where  the  forage  is  left  to  ''  feed  the  flames." 
Observations  have  shown  that  this  is  actually  the  case.  On  one 
of  the  National  Forests  in  Cahfornia  seven  fires  were  started  by 
lightning.     Of  these,  five,  which  occurred  in  a  country  grazed  by 

1  Hatton,  John  H.,  "Livestock  Grazing  as  a  Factor  in  Fire  Protection  on  the 
National  Forests."     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Cir.  134,  1920. 


GRAZING  AND  FIRE  CONTROL 


233 


sheep,  needed  no  attention;  but  the  other  two,  which  were  in 
ungrazed  territory,  burned  until  extinguished  by  Forest  officers 
and  stockmen. 

The  danger  from  fires  is  further  decreased  by  grazing,  because 
the  trampling  of  livestock  breaks  down  the  litter  on  the  ground 
and  hastens  its  decomposition.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
sheep  grazing  (Fig.  76). 

In  controlling  the  beginning  and  rapid  spread  of  surface  fires, 


(Forest  Service.) 
Fig.  76.  —  GRAZING  IN  THE  WOODLAND  TYPE  TENDS  TO  MINIMIZE  FOREST  FIRES. 
The  cropping  of  the  herbage  on  woodland  accompanied  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  semi-decayed  litter 


on  the  ground  hastens  its  decompositi( 
a  distinct  help  in  fire  control. 


enriches  the  soil,  decreases  the  danger  of  fires,  and  is 


grazing  is  often  of  great  assistance  in  preventing  the  more  serious 
ground  and  crown  fires.  In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  recognize 
the  three  classes  of  forest  fires. 

A  surface  fire  is  one  which  consumes  only  such  surface  growth 
as  grass,  weeds,  and  other  small  vegetation.  Nearly  all  forest 
fires  start  from  surface  fires. 

A  ground  fire  is  a  slow  fire  which  burns  down  into  the  htter 
and  mold  and  often  follows  tree  roots  underground.     It  is  hotter 


234  BURNING  OF   PASTURE   LANDS 

than  a  surface  fire  and  usually  kills  all  vegetation  that  is  present. 
Ordinarily  a  ground  fire  covers  only  a  few  acres. 

A  crown  fire  is  one  which  races  through  the  tops  of  the  trees 
at  high  speed.  It  is  the  most  destructive  of  all,  as  it  kills  not 
only  practically  all  the  trees  that  stand  in  its  path  but  the 
herbaceous  and  brush  cover  too.  Crown  fires  usually  leave  the 
soil  sterile,  so  that  for  years  it  is  incapable  of  supporting  the 
higher  types  of  vegetation. 

The  damage  to  the  large  trees  caused  by  surface  fires  is  com- 
paratively small;  but,  if  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  in- 
flammable material  on  the  ground,  the  fire  gains  in  intensity,  and 
there  is  danger  that  the  flames  will  spread  to  some  low-limbed 
tree  and  thence  into  the  tops  of  the  trees  and  start  a  crown  fire. 
If  the  area  is  grazed  by  livestock,  and  if  the  weeds,  grass,  and 
leafage  of  shrubs  have  been  devoured  to  a  considerable  extent, 
not  only  is  the  danger  of  damaging  surface  fires  reduced,  but 
there  is  much  less  opportunity  for  the  starting  of  the  more 
destructive  ground  and  crown  fires. 

For  the  same  reason  driveways  over  which  large  numbers  of 
livestock  are  moved,  and  which  are  almost  always  closely  grazed, 
tend  to  prevent  fires  from  spreading  to  adjacent  areas  where  the 
forage  may  not  have  been  closely  utilized.  The  fact  that  many 
of  these  driveways  are  located  on  ridges  and  along  roads  where 
lines  of  defense  would  have  to  be  estabhshed  to  prevent  the 
spreading  of  a  fire  greatly  adds  to  their  value  for  this  purpose. 
It  is  recorded  that  many  sheep  driveways  have  been  sufficient 
to  stop  fires  which  would  otherwise  have  burned  unchecked. 

Trails  made  by  Uvestock  in  going  to  and  from  water,  salting 
places,  and  feeding  grounds  are  likewise  valuable  for  fire-fighting 
purposes,  both  because  they  often  check  fires,  and  because  they 
permit  men  and  supplies  to  be  taken  into  areas  where  travel 
would  otherwise  be  difficult  if  not  impossible.  Trails,  con- 
structed to  open  up  unutilized  range,  furnish  important  means  of 
access  if  fires  occur.  Likewise  the  development  of  stock- 
watering  places  in  regions  where  water  is  scarce  often  enables 
fire-fighting  crews  to  estabhsh  camp  much  more  advantageously 
than  would  otherwise  be  possible. 


PROPER  CONTROL  OF  GRAZING  ESSENTIAL  235 

Proper  Control  of  Grazing  Essential.  —  Without  question 
grazing  can  be  successfully  employed  on  most  wooded  areas  for 
the  purpose  of  reducing  the  danger  from  fires.  It  cannot  be 
emphasized  too  strongly,  however,  that  unless  grazing  is  carefully 
regulated  its  beneficial  effects  may  be  outweighed  by  the  damage 
it  causes.  This  damage  consists  chiefly  in  the  destruction  of  the 
young  tree  growth  and  the  forage  stand,  and  in  the  increased 
Hability  to  serious  erosion  and  floods,  followed  by  the  depletion 
of  the  soil  and  watershed. 

Overgrazing  and  other  faulty  methods  of  handhng  stock  cause 
damage  to  tree  reproduction  of  all  kinds,  especially  to  the  young, 
tender  coniferous  seedHngs  and  the  hardwood  sprouts,  either  by 
browsing  or  trampling,  or  by  both.  There  will  always  be  some 
areas  well  covered  with  this  class  of  growth,  either  from  natural 
reproduction  or  from  hand  plantings,  from  which  stock  must  be 
excluded  long  enough  to  allow  the  plants  to  pass  beyond  the 
stage  in  which  they  are  Hable  to  be  appreciably  damaged. 
Serious  damage  to  timber  production  is  almost  invariably  asso- 
ciated with  the  destruction  of  the  more  valuable  forage  plants, 
leaving  only  the  unpalatable  species  to  reproduce,  if,  indeed,  it 
does  not  result  in  denuding  the  area  of  all  or  virtually  all  growth. 
Continued  excessive  grazing  or  other  mismanagement  of  the 
range  causes  depletion  of  the  soil  almost  exactly  as  fire  does; 
that  is,  it  destroys  the  natural  supply  of  humus  and  nitrogen. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  careful  regulation  of  grazing  is  neces- 
sary in  using  foraging  animals  to  lessen  the  danger  from  forest 
and  range  fires.  Certain  strategic  locations,  as,  for  instance, 
high  ridges  and  areas  particularly  liable  to  injury  by  fires,  may 
properly  be  grazed  closely  in  order  to  create  firebreaks  or  to 
lessen  the  liability  of  fires.  Ordinarily,  the  aim  should  be  to 
graze  the  forage  before  it  dries  up  and  becomes  inflammable. 
This  is  especially  important  on  areas  of  high  fire  hazard. 

Ranges  ungrazed  because  of  inaccessibility  to  stock  often 
afford  severe  fire  nests.  Most  of  the  fires  on  these  areas  could 
be  prevented  or  controlled  by  the  construction  of  trails  and  by 
such  a  development  of  watering  places  as  would  permit  the 
entrance  of  stock.     Wherever  the  fire  hazard  is  great,  stock  drive- 


236  BURNING   OF  PASTURE   LANDS 

ways  should  be  so  located  that  they  will  constitute  effective  fire- 
breaks. On  lands  which  are  used  exclusively  for  pasture,  and 
which  each  year  are  fully  and  uniformly  utilized,  burning  is 
unnecessary,  as  only  a  small  amount  of  growth  remains  at  the 
end  of  the  season. 

A  little  attention  directed  to  the  control  of  fires  by  judicious 
grazing  will  considerably  simplify  the  protection  of  large  bodies 
of  range  and  woodland,  and  the  profits  derived  from  the  livestock 
will  increase  the  returns  from  the  land. 

SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSIONS 

From  the  unmistakable  evidence  afforded  on  old  "  burns  "  in 
the  forests,  from  Indian  legends,  and  from  the  accounts  of  early 
explorers  it  is  well  established  that  large  areas  of  our  country, 
both  East  and  West,  have  been  repeatedly  swept  by  fires. 
Most  of  these  fires  were  started  by  Indians  and  white  hunters 
to  control  the  movements  of  game.  After  the  country  became 
settled,  stockmen  and  farmers  in  many  parts  of  the  country  for  a 
long  time  continued  burning  off  the  forage  each  year,  contending 
that  its  removal  stimulated  early  spring  growth  and  that  the 
resulting  ash  was  invaluable  as  a  soil  fertilizer.  Experience  and 
close  observations  by  scientists  as  well  as  by  practical  men, 
however,  have  clearly  disproved  in  general  the  argument  in 
favor  of  burning.  Nevertheless,  firing  the  lands  is  still  practiced 
in  certain  sections  in  the  South  and  to  a  lesser  extent  on  unpala- 
table or  otherwise  undesirable  tangles  of  brush  in  the  far  West. 
The  effect  of  burning  off  rank-growing  grasslands  in  the  South 
and  the  chaparral  type  in  the  South  and  far  West  has  long  been 
a  much-mooted  question.  The  conclusions  regarding  the  effects 
of  burning,  all  types  considered,  may  be  summarized  as  fol- 
lows: 

I.  The  vegetation  that  remains  on  the  ground  to  decay  en- 
riches the  soil  by  the  addition  of  humus,  nitrogenous  matter,  and 
other  materials  important  to  plant  growth ;  it  increases  the  water- 
holding  capacity  of  the  soil,  thus  making  a  large  amount  of 
moisture  available  to  plant  Hfe;  and  it  protects  the  soil  from 
excessive  evaporation  and  the  vegetation  against  injury  from 


SUMMARY   AND    CONCLUSIONS  237 

wide  variations  in  soil  temperature,  drought,  and  other  similar 
factors. 

2.  The  safest  and  most  economical  way  in  which  to  maintain 
or  build  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  to  return  to  it  a  goodly 
portion  of  its  yield  of  vegetative  matter.  As  is  shown  by  the 
declining  yields  on  burned-over  lands,  firing  is  inimical  to  the 
increase  or  even  the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility. 

3.  Most  stockmen  concede  that  the  fertility  of  the  soil  cannot 
be  maintained  indefinitely  if  the  plant  cover  is  burned  every 
year  or  two,  but  many  contend  that  growth  begins  earlier  in 
the  spring  on  burned-over  areas  than  on  protected  lands.  The 
facts  indicate  that  there  is  probably  very  httle,  if  any,  difference 
in  the  time  at  which  the  spring  growth  begins  on  burned-over 
lands  and  on  properly  grazed  nonfired  areas.  Furthermore, 
that  part  of  the  old  stand  which  still  remains  somewhat  palatable 
acts  as  a  filler  for  stock;  it  has  at  least  some  food  value  and 
therefore  to  a  certain  extent  protects  the  young  growing  crop 
from  being  overgrazed. 

4.  Burning  of  grasslands  is  considered  by  some  careful  inves- 
tigators, as  well  as  by  many  experienced  stockmen,  to  be  quite 
as  destructive  to  the  plant  cover  as  to  the  fertihty  of  the  soil. 
In  the  middle  West  and  the  far  West  the  writer  has  observed 
that  some  of  the  valuable  shallow-rooted  perennial  forage  and 
hay  plants,  such  as  the  blue  grasses  {Poa)  and  the  fescues 
(Festuca),  for  example,  have  been  killed  by  a  single  fire.  In  the 
Coastal  Plain  region  of  the  South,  carpetgrass  and  lespedeza, 
two  of  the  most  valuable  pasture  and  hay  plants,  are  readily 
killed  by  burning.  On  the  other  hand,  such  inferior  plants  as 
"  wiregrass  "  {Aristida  spp.)  and  broomgrass  {Andropogon  spp.) 
withstand  fires  well,  so  that  where  the  lands  are  burned  annually 
the  latter  plants  usually  become  estabhshed  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  more  desirable  species. 

5.  The  effect  of  fires  is  invariably  to  throw  back  the  develop- 
ment or  successional  trend  of  the  vegetation  to  a  lower  or  more 
primitive  form.  The  resulting  inferior  vegetation,  most  of  which 
is  low  in  forage  yield,  occupies  the  soil  for  an  indefinite  period. 

6.  The  burning  of  grassland,  chaparral,  or  timbered  pastures 


238  BURNING   OF   PASTURE   LANDS 

is  destructive  to  the  soil  in  approximately  direct  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  inflammable  material  and  the  intensity  of  the  heat 
caused  by  the  fire.  A  large  portion  of  the  superficial  roots  of 
most  plants  is  killed,  thus  leaving  the  soil  exposed  to  the  un- 
hampered action  of  erosion. 

7.  Such  herbaceous  forage  plants  as  may  become  established 
after  the  destruction  of  the  brush  are  temporary  in  character. 
As  a  rule  the  brush  is  fully  reestablished  in  three  to  five  years 
after  a  fire. 

8.  Generally  only  parts  of  the  stems  and  branches  of  the 
brush  and  tree  trunks  are  burned.  This  condition  makes  grazing 
difficult,  for  animals  often  become  snagged  and  not  uncommonly 
trapped,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  wool  of  sheep  or  the  mo- 
hair of  goats  is  pulled  out  by  the  animals  coming  in  contact 
with  the  harsh  unburned  vegetation. 

9.  In  some  locaUties  goats  are  effectively  used  in  clearing 
lands  of  brush.  This,  however,  can  best  be  done  where  profit 
from  the  animals  is  secondary  to  the  value  of  ridding  the  lands 
of  brush. 

10.  Carefully  regulated  grazing  is  beneficial  in  preventing 
destructive  fires  and  is  a  distinct  aid  in  fire  control. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  According  to  the  present  available  information,  when  did  range  and 
forest  fires  first  occur  in  this  country?    Name  the  chief  originating  causes. 

2.  How  docs  repeated  burning  of  range  and  pasture  compare  in  destruc- 
tiveness  with  severe  overgrazing? 

3.  What  effect  did  the  settlement  of  the  country  have  on  the  number  and 
frequency  of  fires? 

4.  Approximately,  what  was  the  average  acreage  of  burned-over  lands  and 
the  monetary  loss  resulting  therefrom  in  the  United  States  between  1916  and 
1918,  inclusive? 

5.  To  what  extent  are  fires  purposely  set  at  the  present  time  in  the  East, 
middle  West,  far  West,  and  South? 

6.  Name  the  two  chief  reasons  why  many  stockmen,  more  particularly  in 
the  South,  still  favor  burning  over  the  range  each  year?  What  foundation 
in  fact  is  there  for  these  reasons? 

7.  What  arc  the  chief  functions  of  the  vegetation  which  remains  on  the 
ground  and  decays? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  239 

8.  What  effect  does  burning  each  year  have  on  the  production  of  herbage 
on  grassland?    WTiy? 

9.  What  effect  does  burning  each  year  have  on  the  production  of  herbage 
and  browse  vegetation  on  the  chaparral  type?    On  the  woodland  type?     Why? 

10.  How  is  the  natural  trend  of  plant  development  or  succession  influenced 
by  the  burning  of  (i)  grasslands,  (2)  chaparral,  and  (3)  wooded  pasture? 

11.  How  does  burning  in  the  piney-plains  region  of  the  South  affect  the 
estabhshment  and  spread  of  (i)  broomgrass,  (2)  carpetgrass,  (3)  "  wiregrass," 
and  (4)  lespedeza? 

12.  How  may  grazing  influence  the  control  of  fires?  How  may  grazing  be 
responsible  for  the  starting  of  fires?  Discuss  the  advantages  of  Hvestock 
trails,  watering  places,  and  driveways  in  the  control  of  fires  on  forested  range. 

13.  Name  and  define  the  different  classes  of  forest  fires?  Which  is  the 
most  destructive  to  the  soil?    Which  is  the  most  common? 

14.  Assuming  for  the  sake  of  argument  that  grazing  is  an  asset  in  the  control 
of  fires  on  wooded  pastures,  why  is  it  essential  to  procure  imiform  but  not 
excessive  use  of  the  forage? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Barnes,  Will  C.     Western  Grazing  Grounds  and  Forest  Ranges.     Sanders 

Pub.  Co.  (Breeder's  Gaz.),  Chicago,  1913. 
Graves,  Henry  S.    A  Pohcy  of  Forestry  for  the  Nation.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.,  Office  of  Secretary,  Cir.  148,  1919. 
The  Principles  of  HandUng  Woodlands.     John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc., 

N.  Y.,  191 1. 
Protection  of  Forests  from  Fire.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Forest  Service, 
Bui.  82,  1910. 
Griffiths,  David.     Forage  Conditions  on  the  Northern  Border  of  the 
Great  Basin.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  15. 
1Q02. 
Hatton,  John  H.     Eradication  of  Chaparral  by  Goat  Grazing.     U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.,  Forest  Service,  Review  of  Forest  Service  Investi- 
gations, Vol.  2, 1913. 
Livestock  Grazing  as  a  Factor  in  Fire  Protection  on  the  National 
Forests.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Cir.  134,  1920. 
Jacquot,  a.     Incendies  en  Foret.     Translated  by  C.  E.  C.  Fischer,     Supt. 

Govt.  Printing,  Calcutta,  1910. 
Plummer,  Fred  G.     Chaparral.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Forest  Service,  Bui. 
85,  1911. 
Forest  Fires:   Their  Causes,  Extent,  and  Effects.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 

Forest  Service,  Bui.  117,  1912. 
Lightning  in  Relation  to  Forest  Fu-es.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Forest 
Service,  Bui.  in,  1912. 


240  BURNING  OF   PASTURE   LANDS 

Sampson,  Arthur  W.     Burning  Hay  Meadows  and  Pasture  Lands.     Breed- 
er's Gaz.,  Aug.  31,  1910. 
Concerning  Forest  Fires.     Breeder's  Gaz.,  Sept.  13,  1911. 
Smith,  B.     Narrative  of  Alyar  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  1851. 


CHAPTER  XII 
STOCK-POISONING   PLANTS   AND   THEIR   CONTROL 

Notwithstanding  the  improved  methods  of  management 
adopted  by  stockmen  more  or  less  generally  in  recent  years,  the 
livestock  industry  is  nevertheless  confronted  with  some  very 
difiticult  problems.  One  of  the  biggest  problems  is  the  enormous 
annual  toll  of  stock  losses  due  to  disease,  predatory  animals, 
injurious  plants,  and  accidents  of  all  sorts.  Two  phases  of  this 
problem,  outside,  of  course,  of  bacterial  pathology,  come  within 
the  domain  of  botany,  viz.,  (i)  the  existence  of  poisonous  plants, 
many  of  which  are  devoured  by  livestock  often  with  fatal  effect ; 
and  (2)  the  presence  of  plants  which  at  some  stage  in  their  de- 
velopment cause  mechanical  injury,  not  uncommonly  weakening 
the  animal  seriously  and  sometimes  causing  death. 

The  poisonous-plant  problem  is  most  serious  in  the  far  West 
where  the  losses  each  year  are  very  heavy  —  sometimes,  indeed, 
outnumbering  the  combined  losses  caused  by  contagious  and 
infectious  diseases  and  by  predatory  animals.  On  the  National 
Forest  range  alone  approximately  8,000  cattle  and  20,000  sheep, 
valued  at  about  $500,000,  die  annually  from  the  eating  of 
poisonous  plants;  yet  the  acreage  of  National  Forest  range  is 
only  a  small  part  of  the  grazing  grounds  of  the  West.  More- 
over, the  percentage  of  losses  from  poison  on  the  high  mountain 
Forest  range  is  probably  less  than  on  ranges  of  lower  ele- 
vation, especially  the  public-domain  lands,  most  of  which  are 
badly  overgrazed.  Losses  in  the  plains  region  from  loco,  for 
instance,  each  year  vary  from  5  to  50  per  cent  of  all  the  stock 
grazed. 

Stockmen  may  prevent  much  of  the  heavy  financial  loss  now 
241 


^-- 


242  STOCK-POISONING   PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CONTROL 

caused  by  the  grazing  of  these  dangerous  plants  if  they  will 
familiarize  themselves  with  the  more  common  poisonous  species, 
avoid  grazing  the  stock  upon  heavily  infested  areas,  check  over- 
grazing, provide  sufficient  salt,  and,  at  the  same  time,  put  into 
practice  certain  other  improved  methods  of  handling. 

The  following  chapters  aim,  first,  to  point  out  the  conditions 
under  which  serious  poisoning  is  liable  to  occur;  second,  to  ex- 
plain practical,  thoroughly  tested  methods  for  preventing  losses; 
third,  to  picture  and  describe  the  species  which  cause  the  heaviest 
losses;  and,  fourth,  to  note  the  preventive  and  remedial  measures 
for  each,  in  so  far  as  they  are  known. 

What  is  Poison?  —  By  poison  is  here  meant  any  substance, 
which,  when  taken  internally,  acts  in  a  noxious  manner  other 
than  mechanical,  either  causing  death  or  interfering  more  or  less 
seriously  with  health.  The  toxic  substances  found  in  the  differ- 
ent poisonous  plants  vary  widely  both  in  their  poisonous  effect 
upon  the  animal  and  in  their  chemical  and  physical  properties. 

The  subject  of  poisonous  plants  is  by  no  means  new.  The 
word  "  toxicology  "  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  toxikon, 
which  referred  to  the  poison  in  which  arrows  were  dipped.  The 
American  Indian  and  various  uncivilized  races  of  Africa  and 
other  parts  of  the  world  were  familiar  with  numerous  poisonous 
plants  long  before  chemistry  had  advanced  far  enough  to  isolate 
and  identify  poisonous  plant  substances.  Numerous  interesting 
illustrated  treatises  of  poisonous  plants,  prepared  by  ancient 
Greek  and  Latin  botanists  or  "  medicine  "  men,  show  that  many 
descriptions  of  the  properties  of  plants  given  by  the  ea'-ly  workers 
have  more  recently  been  substantiated  by  scientific  investiga- 
tions. 

Important  Families  of  Poisonous  Plants.  —  Of  the  many 
species  of  poisonous  plants  occurring  throughout  the  United 
States,  those  contained  in  six  genera  are  probably  responsible 
for  at  least  75  per  cent  of  all  livestock  poisoning.  These  genera 
are  members  of  four  families. 

To  the  bunchfiower  family  {Mela^ithaceae)  belong  the  well- 
known  species  of  death  camas  (Zygadenus).  The  plants  of  this 
genus  are  found  largely  in  the  western  part  of  America. 


PALATABILITY  OF  POISONOUS  PLANTS  243 

The  buttercup  family  (Ranunculaceae)  embraces  the  larkspurs 
(Delphinium)  which  cause  such  alarming  losses  among  cattle. 
There  are  many  species  of  larkspur,  a  few  of  which  are  widely 
distributed. 

The  pea  or  pulse  family  (Leguminosae) ,  which,  next  to  the 
grass  family,  embraces  the  most  economically  important  pasture 
and  range  plants,  also  includes  a  number  of  species  that  are 
highly  poisonous  to  livestock.  The  most  troublesome  of  these 
are  the  loco  weeds  (Astragalus  and  Oxytropis).  Lupines  (Lu- 
pinus)  are  also  embraced  in  this  family. 

The  parsnip  family  (Umhelliferae),  like  the  pea  family,  in- 
cludes a  large  number  of  highly  palatable  and  nutritious  forage 
plants,  but  it  embraces  toxic  species  also.  Among  these  is  in- 
cluded water  hemlock  (Cicula) ,  one  of  the  most  deadly  poisonous 
plants  in  North  America. 

Interspersed  with  species  of  the  more  common  genera  of 
poisonous  plants  named  are  many  genera  whose  species  contain 
toxic  substances  and  are  more  or  less  troublesome  to  range  live- 
stock. 

In  addition  to  the  poisonous  species  of  higher  plants,  only  the 
more  prominent  of  which  have  been  mentioned,  powerfully 
toxic  substances  occur  among  some  of  the  bacteria  and  parasitic 
fungi.  Certain  mushrooms  and  some  smuts,  like  ergot,  have 
been  the  cause  of  livestock  losses.  Like  many  poisonous  flower- 
ing plants,  the  fungi  are  somewhat  variable  in  the  toxic  sub- 
stances present. 

Although  something  may  be  accomplished  in  the  application 
of  medical  remedies  to  poisoned  animals  on  the  range,  the  main 
reliance  in  the  control  of  losses  must  be  upon  better  range  man- 
agement and  improved  livestock  handling. 

Palatability  of  Poisonous  Plants.  —  The  fundamental  rule 
concerning  the  poisoning  of  any  animal  is  that  a  certain  amount 
of  the  toxic  plant  substance  must  be  absorbed  and  circulated  by 
the  blood  to  cause  death.  The  effect  upon  an  animal  that  con- 
sumes a  poisonous  plant,  then,  depends  not  only  on  the  amount 
devoured  but  on  the  rapidity  with  which  the  toxic  substance  is 
eliminated.     The  latter  varies  with  different  plants  and  animals, 


244  STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CONTROL 

and  hence  some  plants  known  to  be  poisonous  may  never  cause 
symptoms  of  distress  in  certain  animals. 

Poisonous  plants  are  not  generally  grazed  as  a  matter  of  choice. 
Accordingly  there  is  a  striking  relation  between  scarcity  of  food 
and  losses  by  poisonous  plants.^  The  heaviest  losses  are  most 
^^^able  to  occur  on  ranges  that  are  badly  depleted.  On  such 
areas  the  more  palatable  species  produce  a  weak  growth,  whereas 
the  poisonous  plants,  being  ordinarily  cropped ^but  Httle,  start 
growth  in  advance  of  the  choice  forage  and  may  constitute  a 
conspicuous  part  of  the  early  spring  vegetation.  Not  uncom- 
monly livestock  losses  are  heavy  on  lands  which  are  grazed  pre- 
maturely. Moreover,  vegetation  of  all  kinds  is  less  nutritious 
early  in  the  spring  than  later  in  the  season,  and  this  fact  tends 
to  widen  the  selection  of  leafage  consumed  by  livestock,  thus  in- 
creasing the  consumption  of  poisonous  plants.  Such  overgrazed 
areas  should  be  re  vegetated  as  soon  as  possible.  They  should 
not  be  grazed  too  early  in  the  season,  and  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  stock  them  too  heavily. 

Range  Use  and  Variation  in  Poisonous  Substances  of  Plants.  — 
It  is  well  known  that  alkaloids  and  other  toxic  substances  are 
not  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  tissues  of  all  poisonous 
plants. 

In  the  toxic  lupines  poisoning  is  unknown  until  the  seed  pods 
are  well  formed;  therefore,  practically  all  lupine  poisoning  occurs 
in  late  summer  and  in  the  autumn.  Accordingly,  lupine- 
infested  lands  should  either  be  grazed  early  in  the  season,  before 
the  seeds  have  developed,  or  late  in  the  autumn  after  the  seeds 
have  dropped.  Although  the  lupine  pods  are  poisonous,  they 
do  not  cause  deaths  unless  eaten  in  large  quantities.  Sheep  are 
especially  subject  to  lupine  poisoning  and  therefore  should  not  be 
grazed  on  lupine  areas  when  the  pods  contain  seed. 

The  root  of  the  water  hemlock  contains  more  deadly  toxic 
properties  than  do  the  leaves  or  stem.  Sheep  seldom  trample 
out  the  tubers  of  this  plant,  whereas  cattle  are  more  hable  to  do 
so,  and  therefore  are  subject  to  greater  loss  from  eating  them. 

^  Marsh,  C.  Dwight,  "  Prevention  of  Losses  of  Live  Stock  from  Plant  Poisoning." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  720,  191 6. 


PROPER  SALTING  OF  STOCK  245 

Then,  too,  late  in  the  season  the  leafage  and  stems  of  water  hem- 
lock become  so  coarse  as  to  be  eaten  practically  not  at  all  by  sheep. 

Again,  it  is  good  practice  to  graze  on  a  poison-infested  area 
that  class  of  stock  which  is  immune  to  the  toxic  species.  Horses 
and  cattle  are  relatively  safe  on  lands  containing  death  camas 
and  can  generally  utihze  with  impunity  the  feed  on  such  lands, 
whereas  sheep  may  suffer  severely.  Stock  poisoning  from  death 
camas,  however,  seldom  seems  to  occur  after  blossoming.  While 
the  herbage  of  death  camas  may  be  quite  as  poisonous  after  the 
flowers  have  dropped  as  when  the  plant  is  young,  the  leaves  are 
much  less  palatable  than  early  in  the  spring.  The  seed  of  death 
camas,  which  is  also  poisonous,  is  seldom  eaten,  and,  as  the  plant 
approaches  maturity,  its  palatability  is  practically  lost. 

The  larkspurs,  although  poisonous  to  cattle,  are  not  in- 
jurious to  horses  or  sheep  (Fig.  77).  Horses  show  symptoms 
of  larkspur  poisoning  under  forced  feeding,  but  they  seldom  con- 
sume the  plant  on  the  range.  The  leafage  and  stems  of  larkspur, 
on  the  other  hand,  seem  to  lose  much  of  their  poisonous  property 
about  the  time  of  seed  maturity,  and  the  plant  seldom  causes 
serious  losses  in  cattle  late  in  the  autumn. 

Sneezeweed  is  evidently  harmful  to  sheep,  but  its  leafage  ap- 
parently is  not  devoured  by  cattle  and  horses.  Hence,  range 
containing  an  abundance  of  this  plant  may  be  grazed  with  im- 
punity by  cattle  and  horses,  although  it  would  be  dangerous  to 
sheep. 

Proper  Salting  of  Stock.  —  Failure  to  provide  sufficient  salt 
causes  foraging  animals  to  develop  a  perverted  appetite.  Animals 
not  given  sufficient  salt  become  restless  and  are  difficult  to  handle. 
At  the  same  time  they  are  unable  to  eliminate  poisons  so  well  as 
are  those  supplied  with  ample  salt.  The  reliance  upon  alkali 
licks  is  generally  unsafe,  as  most  alkali  outcrops  are  composed  of 
minerals  other  than  sodium  chloride,  or  true  salt.  Natural  salt 
licks  whose  deposits  do  not  contain  the  essential  chlorine  element 
are  entirely  unsuited  to  stock  and  in  no  way  take  the  place  of 
common  salt.  If  natural  licks  are  to  be  used,  a  sample  of  the 
salt  should  be  examined  by  a  chemist  to  determine  if  chlorine 
is  present. 


246         STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS  AND  THEIR   CONTROL 

In  addition  to  proper  salting,  the  animals  should  have  ample 
water  at  all  times.  Without  sufficient  water,  poisonous  sub- 
stances cannot  be  readily  eliminated. 

Eradicating  Poisonous  Plants.  —  Various  methods  of  eradi- 


FiG.  77.  — YOUNG  cow  POISONED  IN  THE  SPRUCE-FIR  TYPE  AT  AN  ELEVATION 

OF   10,000  FEET. 
The  predominating  vegetation  in  the  background  is  tall  larkspur.     The  position  of  the  animal,  with 

the  head  down  the  slope,  is  characteristic  of  larkspur  poisoning.     Horses  and  sheep  graze  with 

impunity  on  the  range  here  shown. 

eating  plants  from  the  range  have  been  tried.  Since  all  poison- 
ous plants  are  not  injurious  to  all  classes  of  stock,  the  toxic 
species  may  be  weakened  or  thinned  out  by  close  cropping  by 
those  animals  that  are  not  susceptible  to  injury.  Thus  larkspur 
areas  may  with  impunity  be  closely  grazed  by  sheep.  Complete 
eradication  of  larkspur  by  the  grazing  of  sheep  cannot  be  ex- 
pected, however,  for  native  larkspurs  are  perennials  and  are  not 


DRIVING  AND    HERDING   STOCK  247 

easily  destroyed;  and,  if  they  are  grazed  so  closely  as  to  be  elim- 
inated, the  desirable  vegetation  is  also  killed  out.  Similar  results 
may  be  expected  where  other  perennial  toxic  species  occur. 

It  is  known  that  poisonous  plants  generally  increase  in  abun- 
dance where  the  ranges  are  overgrazed.  As  the  productivity 
of  the  range  is  increased,  many  species  of  poisonous  plants  will 
be  crowded  out  by  desirable  forage  species.  This  appears  to  be 
especially  true  of  the  low  larkspurs,  death  camas,  sneezeweed, 
and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  of  the  locos. 

Chemical  destruction  of  poisonous  plants  has  been  tried  more 
or  less  extensively  but  without  great  success,  because  the  other 
vegetation  is  killed  as  well.  Various  chemicals,  such  as  arsenite 
of  soda,  common  salt,  and  petroleum  may  be  used  to  kill  poison- 
ous vegetation,  but  to  discover  a  substance  which  will  act  in  a 
selective  way  upon  the  undesirable  species  is  difficult. 

Grubbing  or  frequent  cutting  are  the  most  effective  methods 
thus  far  developed  for  destroying  poisonous  plants.  The  grub- 
bing of  tall  larkspur  is  a  conspicuous  example  of  practical  eradi- 
cation. Growing  as  larkspur  does,  characteristically  in  some- 
what isolated  patches,  the  grubbing  can  usually  be  done  at  a  cost 
per  acre  of  less  than  half  the  value  of  a  two-year-old  steer.  Again, 
water  hemlock,  which  occurs  commonly  in  patches  on  wet  land, 
can  also  be  dug  out  economically.  Less  success  may  be  expected 
in  the  way  of  eradication  by  grubbing  of  such  plants  as  the  locos, 
death  camas,  or  lupine,  on  account  of  their  scattered  growth. 
All  species  can  be  killed  in  time  by  cutting  off  the  plants  close 
to  the  ground.  Usually  three  or  four  cuttings  are  required  for 
complete  eradication. 

Driving  and  Herding  Stock.  —  It  is  often  necessary  to  move 
sheep  considerable  distances  in  changing  from  one  range  to 
another.  Some  of  the  most  serious  cases  of  poisoning  recorded 
have  occurred  during  these  drives.  If  sheep  are  driven  hastily, 
they  are  hable  to  snatch  many  plants  which  they  would  not 
devour  if  they  were  feeding  at  leisure.  When  feeding  quietly 
on  the  range,  tne-^'^  exercise  considerable  choice  in  the  selection 
of  forage;  but  when  they  have  been  driven  steadily  for  a  con- 
siderable period  and  are  quite  hungry,  they  are  apt  to  nip  off 


248         STOCK-POISOXIXG   PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

almost  any  vegetation.  This  frequently  results  in  astounding 
losses. 

The  same  bad  effects  are  Hable  to  follow  if  sheep  are  bedded 
for  several  nights  in  the  same  place.  As  they  leave  the  bed 
ground  the  first  morning  or  two  they  naturally  take  the  best 
feed.  On  subsequent  mornings  they  are  liable  to  devour  poison- 
ous plants  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  a  fatal  result.  Both 
as  a  measure  of  safety  against  losses  from  poisonous  plants  and 
as  a  means  of  protecting  the  range,  it  is  much  better  to  use  a  new 
bed  ground  every  night.  The  blanket  method  of  bedding  down 
sheep,  and  open,  quiet  herding  are  by  far  the  safest  practices. 

If  cattle  are  being  moved  over  a  driveway,  care  should  be 
taken  that  they  do  not  pass  over  larkspur  areas  when  they  are 
very  hungry.  Hungry  cattle,  like  sheep,  will  snatch  eagerly 
at  almost  any  vegetation  along  their  path,  and  under  such  con- 
ditions larkspur  is  tempting.  Neither  cattle  nor  sheep  should 
be  hurried  on  the  drive.  If  they  are  permitted  to  drift  along 
leisurely,  they  will  spread  out  and  select  their  food  with  reason- 
able care.  A  large  proportion  of  the  losses  among  cattle  and 
sheep  occur  because  the  animals  are  driven  in  compact  masses 
over  poison  areas,  whereas  there  would  be  practically  no  losses 
if  the  animals  were  drifted  across. 

Established  driveways  are  much  more  liable  to  contain  poi- 
sonous plants  than  are  driveways  used  occasionally.  Although 
it  is  not  always  possible  to  avoid  the  use  of  fixed  driveways, 
their  use  may  sometimes  be  alternated  from  year  to  year,  and 
in  this  way  a  fair  supply  of  forage  may  be  maintained.  If 
this  is  not  possible,  an  established  driveway  should  be  provided 
with  camps  where  feed  and  water  are  available.  The  number 
of  camps  should  be  carefully  determined  on  the  basis  of  the 
number  of  animals  that  are  to  pass  over  the  driveway  each  season. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  do  the  losses  from  poisonous  plants  in  the  West  compare  with  those 
caused  by  diseases  and  by  predatory  animals? 

2.  (a)  Approximately  how  many  cattle  and  sheep  die  annually  on  National 
Forest  range  from  poisonous  plants?  (b)  How  do  such  losses  compare  with 
those  chargeable  to  poisonous  plants  on  grazing  grounds  in  the  West  generally? 


QUESTIONS  249 

3.  Define  poison. 

4.  (a)  What  families  embrace  the  most  poisonous  plants?  (b)  Name  the 
six  genera  of  plants  which  cause  the  heaviest  hvestock  losses. 

5.  (a)  To  what  extent  are  poisonous  plants  generally  palatable?  (b)  Dis- 
cuss the  relation  of  range  use  and  variation  in  poisonous-plant  substances. 

6.  Discuss  salt  and  salting  of  livestock  as  factors  in  poisonous-plant  control. 

7.  (a)  To  what  extent  and  under  what  conditions  is  eradication  of  poisonous 
plants  practicable?  (b)  What  methods  of  plant  eradication  have  been  tried, 
and  which  have  given  the  best  results?  Why?  (c)  What  is  the  cost  of  plant 
eradication  if  one  of  the  more  effective  methods  is  employed? 

8.  Discuss  the  handling  of  stock  on  depleted  driveways  where  poisonous 
plants  occur. 

9.  What  methods  of  herding  and  bedding  sheep  in  relation  to  plant  poison- 
ing are  most  effective  and  desirable? 

Note.  —  The  bibliography  for  the  general  subject  of  stock-poisoning 
plants  is  placed  at  the  end  of  Chapter  XIV  (page  289). 


CHAPTER  XIII 

PRINCIPAL  STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS 

LOCO   PLANTS   {Oxytropis  and  Astragalus) 

Loco  plants  are  members  of  two  genera  —  Oxytropis  and  As- 
tragalus. The  most  destructive  of  these  plants  is  the  so-called 
Lambert's,  white,  stemless,  or  rattleweed  loco  {Oxytropis  Lam- 
hertii).  It  is  a  perennial  herb  with  stems  12  to  18  inches  high, 
the  leaflets  of  the  compound  leaves  being  slender,  somewhat 
hairy,  and  ohve-green  in  color.  The  spikes  of  flowers  are  com- 
monly white,  though  the  corolla  is  sometimes  streaked  with 
purple.  As  the  calyx  is  sometimes  red,  a  variety  of  colors  is 
found.  The  rattling  of  the  pods  as  one  touches  them  when  the 
seed  is  mature  resembles  the  sound  of  a  rattlesnake.  Accord- 
ingly the  name  "  rattleweed  "  is  in  more  or  less  common  use 
(Fig.  78,  colored  plate). 

Woolly,  purple,  or  Texas  loco  {Astragalus  mollissimus)  is 
probably  the  second  most  destructive  species.  It  is  believed 
to  have  been  the  first  member  of  the  genus  to  be  recognized  as 
dangerous  to  livestock.  Woolly  loco  may  be  distinguished  from 
Lambert's  loco  by  its  more  leafy  stem,  its  conspicuously  hairy 
and  broader  leaflets,  blunt  instead  of  sharp-keeled,  and  often 
by  a  deeper  purple  corolla,  and  shorter,  thicker  dark-brown 
pods.     (Compare  Figs.  78  and  80,  colored  plate.) 

Distribution  and  Habitat.  —  The  amount  of  destructiveness  of 
white  loco  is  due  to  its  very  extended  range  rather  than  to  an 
extraordinary  degree  of  toxicity.  It  often  grows  very  abundantly 
over  large  areas  and  is  found  from  the  north  to  the  south  of  the 
United  States,  eastward  as  far  as  central  Minnesota,  western 
Kansas,  and  western  Texas,  and  westward  to  western  Arizona 
and  western  Montana.  Woolly  loco,  as  shown  in  Figure  79, 
occurs  on  the  west  from  southeastern  Arizona,  central  Colorado, 
and  southeastern  Wyoming,  north  to  South  Dakota,  east  through 

250 


DISTRIBUTION  AND   HABITAT 


251 


Fig.  79.  —  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  TWO   MOST  TROUBLESOME  SPECIES  OF  LOCO. 


252  PRINCIPAL   STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS 

Nebraska  and  eastern  Oklahoma,  and  south  through  Texas,  into 
Mexico.  Woolly  loco  does  not  usually  grow  so  abundantly  as 
Lambert's  or  white  loco  and  certain  other  species,  yet  it  may  cover 
several  acres.  It  grows  as  a  rule  in  patches,  on  adobe  soil, 
and  in  depressions  rather  than  on  elevated  ground. 

Losses  of  Stock  and  Animals  Poisoned.  —  Loco  weeds  are 
among  the  most  destructive  of  all  the  poisonous  plants.  Losses 
in  regions  where  purple  loco  is  the  only  poisonous  weed  are  almost 
entirely  among  horses,  mules,  and  sheep.  Cattle  seldom  crop 
the  plant.  Horses  do  not  usually  eat  purple  loco  if  other 
forage  is  plentiful,  but  they  may  form  the  habit  if  forced  by 
lack  of  good  forage.  The  use  of  the  plant  generally  results 
fatally.  White  loco,  on  the  other  hand,  is  eaten  more  readily 
by  horses,  mules,  cattle,  and  sheep,  especially  where  palatable 
grass  is  scarce.  Some  animals  leave  loco  for  grass  when  the 
latter  becomes  green,  but  others  develop  a  strong  liking  for 
loco  and  continue  to  eat  it  regardless  of  the  presence  of  other 
feed.  They  will  usually,  however,  lose  their  fondness  for  the 
plant  if  kept  away  from  it.  The  effects  of  eating  loco  depend 
largely  upon  the  individual  animal.  Some  animals  eat  a  lim- 
ited amount  of  the  plant  at  certain  times  of  the  year  for  a  number 
of  seasons  without  apparent  harm,  but  others  die  \vithin  a  few 
months  or  in  a  few  weeks.  Losses  from  loco  poisoning  are 
heaviest  among  young  sheep  and  horses,  as  older  animals  rarely 
acquire  the  loco  habit  except  where  good  forage  is  scarce. 

Symptoms  of  Poisoning.  —  Loco  poisoning  may  be  acute, 
resulting  fatally  within  a  few  days,  or  it  may  be  slow,  working 
for  months  or  even  as  long  as  a  year.  The  effects  of  the  poison 
are  cumulative;  animals  never  become  immune  to  it.  The  first 
symptoms  of  loco  poisoning  are  stupidity  and  general  loss  of 
condition.  The  animals  show  marked  lack  of  muscular  control 
and  become  very  nervous  and  excitable.  The  gait  is  irregular 
and  staggering,  the  eyes  are  glassy,  and  the  sight  is  impaired 
or  lost  altogether.  A  rough,  shaggy  coat  is  characteristic. 
The  loss  of  muscular  control  causes  the  animal  to  act  in  an  ab- 
normal manner,  apparently  seeing  things  incorrectly  or  as  the 
exact  opposite  of  what  they  are.     For  example,  a  horse  will 


REMEDIES 


253 


(Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 

■THE  LANGUID   GAIT  OF  A 
LOCOED   HORSE.' 


leap  high  over  a  rut  in  the  road  or  crouch  to  pass  under  an 
imaginary  barrier  (Fig.  81).  It  shies  at  nothing  and  runs  up 
against  obstructions.  Horses  in  this  condition  are  very  danger- 
ous to  ride  or  drive.      Cattle    • 

are  similarly  affected  (Fig.  82). 
They  start,  tremble,  jump,  and 
toss  the  head  violently.  They 
become  crazed,  lose  flesh,  and 
death  results  from  starvation. 
The  symptoms  in  sheep  and 
goats  are  less  violent  (Figs.  83 
and  84) .  They  usually  become 
very  weak  and  stupid,  and 
stumble  and  fall,  rising  with 
great  difficulty.  Locoed  sheep 
are  difficult  to  herd,  for  they 
tend  to  stray  away  from  the  flock  and  are  often  very  stubborn. 
The  fleece  comes  off  in  patches.  The  animal  is  unable  to  take 
care  of  itself  and  is  Hable  to  faU  into  pools  of  water  and  drown. 

Death  results  from  the  ex- 
haustion following  the  severe 
convulsions  which  characterize 
the  later  stages  of  the  disease, 
and  from  lack  of  nourish- 
ment. Constipation  is  a  gen- 
eral symptom  of  loco  poisoning 
in  all  animals. 

Remedies.  —  Because  there 
has  been  so  little  understand- 
ing of  the  nature  of  the  loco 
poison  and  of  its  physiological 
effects  upon  livestock,  no  cer- 
tain cure  for  it  has  yet  been 
progressed  so  far  that  the  an- 
imals are  no  longer  worth  saving,  they  should  be  removed  from 
loco-infested  range  and  given  proper  feed.  If  sheep  are  taken 
away  from  loco  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease,  they  may  be 


Fig.  82.  — a  locoed  STEER  JUMPING 
UNNECESSARILY  HIGH  IN  GOING 
OVER  A  SLIGHT  ELEVATION  IN  A 
ROAD. 

found.     If  the  disease  has  not 


254 


PRIXCIPAL   STOCK-POISONING   PLANTS 


Fig.  83. 


(Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 

A  GOAT  IN  THE  LATER   STAGES 
OF  THE  LOCO  DISEASE. 


fattened  for  market,  as  the  poison  does  not  affect  the  quality  of 
the  meat  for  food.  Sheep  which  do  not  become  fat  are  worth- 
less except  for  their  hides.    Horses  very  rarely  recover  from  the 

loco  habit. 

Constipation  may  be  re- 
lieved by  Epsom  salts.  The 
dose  for  mature  cattle  is  about 
I  pound,  given  as  a  drench; 
for  calves,  2  ounces;  for 
horses,  8  ounces;  and  for  ma- 
ture sheep,  4  ounces.  Food 
of  a  laxative  character,  such 
as  alfalfa  and  oil  meal,  should 
be  given.  Nervousness  in 
horses  may  be  relieved  by  4 
to  6  drams  of  Fowler's  solu- 
tion daily  in  the  grain  or 
drinking  water.  Strychnine  may  be  administered  hypoder- 
mically  to  cattle  in  very  small  doses  —  three- twentieths  to  four- 
twentieths  of  a  grain  daily.  The  treatment  for  both  horses  and 
cattle  should  be  continued 
for  thirty  days  or  more.  Re- 
covery cannot  be  rapid,  be- 
cause the  condition  is  brought 
on  very  gradually. 

Control  and  Prevention  of 
Losses.  —  As  loco  plants  do 
not  reproduce  from  root- 
stocks,  they  may  be  killed  by 
cutting  off  the  root  2  or  3 
inches  below  the  ground.  The 
plants  are  very  stubborn,  and 
the  seeds  long-lived,  produc- 
ing a  continuous  crop.  These 
seeds,  however,  are  not  carried 

long  distances  by  the  wind;  hence  there  is  little  danger  of  new 
plants  starting  on  lands  adjoining  loco-infested  areas. 


Fig.  84.  — A  MUCH  EMACIATKD  SHEEP 
IN  THE  ADVANCED  STAGES  OF 
LOCO  POISONING. 


DISTRIBUTION  AND   HABITAT  255 

Loco  plants  in  a  pasture  may  be  destroyed  with  a  spade,  but 
the  work  must  be  done  two  or  three  times  a  season  and  repeated 
every  season.  Purple  loco  is  usually  easier  to  eradicate  than  is 
white  loco,  because  of  its  habit  of  growing  in  restricted  areas, 
while  white  loco  may  cover  many  acres  with  a  dense  growth. 
The  cost  in  one  experiment  of  eradicating  loco  weeds  was  about 
$3  an  acre  for  the  first  season,  a  small  percentage  of  the  customary 
loss  from  poisoned  stock  in  a  single  year.  Experiments  in 
eradicating  loco,  however,  have  not  yet  been  conducted  on  a 
sufficiently  intensive  scale  to  demonstrate  the  feasibility  of 
grubbing  out  the  species  under  general  field  conditions.  Loco 
should  be  dug  in  May  or  June,  while  it  is  blossoming,  as  the 
plants  are  more  readily  detected  and  the  seeds  are  not  yet  ripe. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  young  animals  away 
from  loco-infested  areas,  particularly  where  other  forage  is 
scarce.  As  all  domestic  animals  are  more  or  less  imitative,  those 
having  the  loco  habit  are  likely  to  teach  others  the  same  habit. 
Therefore  locoed  animals  should  be  pastured  by  themselves  or, 
better  still,  be  disposed  of.  If  grubbing  out  the  loco  plants  is 
impracticable,  either  the  badly  infested  areas  should  be  fenced 
against  stock,  or  the  animals  should  not  be  herded  on  those  lands.^ 

LARKSPURS    (Delphinium) 

Other  common  names  for  Delphinium  are  cow  poison  and 
poison  weed.  A  large  number  of  larkspurs,  widely  variable  in 
size  and  form,  grow  in  native  pasture  lands  in  the  West. 
When  in  blossom  these  plants  are  readily  recognized  by  the 
conspicuous  spur  of  the  flower. 

Distribution  and  Habitat.  —  There  are  more  than  twenty-five 
native  species  of  larkspur  in  the  United  States,  but  few  of  these 
ire  widely  distributed.  Some  of  the  western  species,  however, 
ire  found  on  practically  all  of  the  stock  ranges  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  westward,  particularly  in  the  more  elevated  National 
Forest  regions,  where  they  often  grow  abundantly. 

The  present  systematic  status  of  the  larkspurs  is  admittedly 

1  For  a  detailed  review  of  the  loco-weed  problem,  see  Marsh,  C.  D.,  "The  Loco- 
Weed  Disease  of  the  Plains,"  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  112,  1909. 


256  PRINCIPAL   STOCK-POISONING   PLANTS 

unsatisfactory,  and  the  genus  is  much  in  need  of  revision  tax- 
onomically.  The  larkspur  species  of  the  western  ranges,  how- 
ever, may  conveniently  be  divided  into  two  general  groups  — 
tall  larkspur  (Fig.  85,  colored  plate)  and  low  larkspur  (Fig. 
86,  colored  plate).  These  two  groups  differ  somewhat  in  their 
choice  of  growth  sites.  The  tall  species  prefer  the  moist,  shel- 
tered gulches  and  canyons  of  the  higher  ranges.  Delphinium 
Barbeyi  is  the  representative  tall  larkspur  species  of  Colorado, 
and  is  also  found  in  the  mountains  of  Wyoming,  Montana,  and 
Utah.  It  grows  at  altitudes  of  about  8,000  feet  to  approxi- 
mately timberline.  The  most  common  species  in  Montana  is 
D.  cucullatum,  which  is  the  cause  of  most  of  the  losses  of  cattle 
on  mountain  ranges  in  that  State. 

Low  larkspur  grows  on  open  hillsides,  in  drier  localities  than 
the  tall  species,  and  at  somewhat  lower  elevations.  Typical 
of  the  low  species  are  D.  Menziesii,  which  grows  at  elevations 
of  from  4,000  to  10,000  feet,  and  sometimes  spreads  over  large 
tracts,  and  D.  bicolor,  which  grows  at  lower  altitudes  than  D. 
Menziesii  and  is  not  so  abundant.  These  species  are  more  or 
less  poisonous  to  cattle  until  after  the  seeds  fall. 

Both  tall  and  low  larkspurs  are  common  in  Wyoming,  Colo- 
rado, Utah,  Montana,  and  New  Mexico,  and  are  found  in  vary- 
ing abundance  in  the  foothill  and  mountain  pastures  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  West. 

Losses  of  Stock  and  Animals  Poisoned.  —  It  is  probable 
that  more  deaths  among  cattle  on  western  ranges  are  caused  by 
larkspur  than  by  any  other  poisonous  plant.  Serious  cases  of 
loss  of  cattle  from  this  cause  are  on  record.  For  example,  one 
report  states  that  35  out  of  a  herd  of  500  cattle  died  within  five 
hours;  in  another  herd  200  out  of  3,000  died;  and  in  another, 
200  out  of  a  herd  of  5,000.^  The  estimated  money  loss  of  cattle 
from  this  cause  on  the  Fishlake  National  Forest  ranges  in  Utah 
in  1915  was  $15,000. 

So  far  as  observations  and  experiments  show,  sheep  are  never 
poisoned  by  larkspur;  on  the  contrary,  the  plants  are  considered 

1  Marsh,  C.  D.,  and  Clawson,  A.  B.,  "Larkspur  Poisoning  of  Livestock."  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  365,  p.  12,  1916. 


SYMPTOMS  OF  POISONING  257 

to  be  good  forage  for  them.  Horses  are  susceptible  to  the  poison 
if  large  quantities  are  fed  experimentally;  but  in  feeding  on  the 
range  at  will  it  is  not  likely  that  they  would  eat  enough  to  cause 
serious  results. 

Poisonous  Parts  of  Plant.  —  All  the  parts  of  the  larkspur  plant 
above  ground  are  poisonous;  most  of  the  trouble  is  caused  by  the 
leaves,  but  sometimes  by  the  flowers  also.  The  seeds  contain 
more  active  poison  than  the  rest  of  the  plant,  but  they  hardly 
ever  cause  death,  as  they  are  readily  disseminated  upon  reaching 
maturity  and  are  not  sought  for  by  stock.  After  seed  maturity, 
also,  the  leafage  seems  to  lose  much  of  its  toxicity. 

The  low  larkspurs  are  poisonous  as  long  as  their  herbage  lives, 
but  that  generally  lasts  only  through  May  and  June.  More- 
over, the  low  species  seldom  grow  densely  enough  for  stock 
to  crop  fatal  amounts  of  the  herbage.  The  roots  of  native 
larkspurs  are  never  eaten,  as  they  are  tough  and  woody  and 
difficult  to  get  at. 

Amount  Required  to  Cause  Death.  —  Experiments  with  feed- 
ing larkspur  show  that  an  animal  must  eat  about  3  per  cent 
of  its  weight  in  order  to  be  fatally  poisoned.  Thus,  an  animal 
weighing  800  pounds  would  have  to  eat  about  25  pounds  of 
either  tall  or  low  larkspur,  although  the  fatal  dose  varies  with 
the  age  of  the  plant,  and  with  the  condition  and  idiosyncrasies  of 
the  animal.  On  the  average,  if  poisoning  has  proved  fatal,  it  has 
been  found  that  the  amount  of  larkspur  eaten  was  8  to  9  per  cent 
of  the  weight  of  the  animal.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
larkspur  is  not  a  virulent  poison,  and,  if  taken  in  small  amounts, 
is  not  dangerous.  If  other  forage  is  plentiful,  stock  may  graze 
without  harm  on  a  range  on  which  larkspur  is  growing.  The 
risk  is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  scarcity  of  good  feed. 

Symptoms  of  Poisoning.  —  Larkspur  poisoning  always  causes 
constipation,  and  recovery  usually  follows  if  this  condition  can 
be  relieved.  Bloating  occasionally  occurs,  and  sometimes  death 
is  caused  by  choking.  Animals  poisoned  by  larkspur  fall  in  a 
peculiar  manner ;  the  fore  legs  give  way,  and  the  animal  supports 
itself  by  its  head,  and  by  spreading  its  hind  legs.  It  usually 
falls  several  times,  the  falls  occurring  at  longer  intervals  if  the 


258  PRINCIPAL  STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS 

poisoning  is  not  fatal.  Other  common  symptoms  are  quivering 
of  the  entire  body,  loss  of  muscular  control,  restlessness,  stiff- 
ness of  gait,  excessive  salivation,  weak,  rapid  pulse,  and  evi- 
dence of  pain  in  the  abdomen,  probably  due  to  constipation. 
If  pronounced  symptoms  of  nausea  occur,  death  is  ahnost  cer- 
tain to  follow.  (See  Fig.  77.)  The  symptoms  are  practically 
uniform  for  the  tall  and  low  larkspurs.  If  the  case  has  not 
developed  fatally,  recovery  from  larkspur  poisoning  is  very 
rapid.  The  effects  usually  disappear  in  two  or  three  days,  and 
no  permanent  injury  is  left. 

Remedies.  —  As  already  said,  it  is  probable  that,  if  consti- 
pation could  be  reheved  as  soon  as  the  first  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing appear,  the  poison  would  not  result  fatally.  Many  ex- 
periments have  been  tried  with  various  remedies,  such  as  barium 
chloride,  caffeine,  sodium  benzoate,  strychnine,  potassium 
permanganate,  and  atropine;  but  none  of  these  has  proved 
successful. 

Apparently  favorable  results  have  been  obtained  from  hy- 
podermic injections  of  physostigmine  salicylate,  pilocarpine 
hydrochloride,  and  strychnine  sulphate;  but,  while  more  than 
96  per  cent  of  the  cases  treated  with  this  remedy  recovered,  the 
total  number  of  tests  made  was  not  large  enough  to  give  absolute 
proof  of  the  efficacy  of  the  treatment.  It  is  likely,  however,  that 
it  would  be  effective  if  applied  very  promptly.  The  formula  for 
an  animal  weighing  500  to  600  pounds  is  as  follows:  Physostig- 
mine salicylate,  i  grain;  pilocarpine  hydrochloride,  2  grains; 
strychnine  sulphate,  ^  grain.  The  formula  is  to  be  doubled  for 
an  animal  weighing  1,000  pounds  or  more,  and  the  dose  is  not  to 
be  repeated.  If  the  animal  shows  signs  of  collapse,  hypodermic 
injections  of  20  cubic  centimeters  of  whisky  or  50  per  cent 
alcohol  may  be  given.  The  use  of  this  formula  has  been  tried 
on  the  range,  as  the  equipment  is  not  bulky.  It  may  be  of 
practical  value  where  pure-bred  cattle  are  run,  but  not  for  grade 
animals.  The  Quitman  syringe,  lo-centimeter  size,  is  the  best 
to  use.  The  needle  is  inserted  in  the  shoulder.  If  the  animal  is 
down,  it  should  be  so  placed  that  the  head  will  lie  higher  than  the 


CONTROL  AND  PREVENTION  OF  LOSSES  259 

body,  to  prevent  choking  from  the  gas  pressure,  and  it  should 
be  allowed  to  lie  undisturbed.  If  the  case  of  poisoning  is  not 
severe,  this  treatment  alone  is  usually  sufficient.  The  all-too- 
common  practice  of  bleeding  has  no  merit  whatever.  If  an 
animal  is  poisoned  by  larkspur  on  the  range,  it  is  usually  dead 
when  found,  as  a  quantity  large  enough  to  be  fatal  acts  very 
quickly. 

Control  and  Prevention  of  Losses.  —  Most  of  the  losses  of 
cattle  from  larkspur  poisoning  occur  in  regions  where  the  plant 
grows  in  small,  dense  patches,  frequently  in  gulches  into  which 
the  animals  stray  and  graze  until  they  have  eaten  enough  to 
cause  poisoning.  The  best  way  to  eradicate  larkspur  when  it 
grows  in  patches  is  by  grubbing.^  The  highest  labor  cost  of  the 
operation,  on  the  most  difficult  areas,  is  never  more  than  $12  to 
$15  per  acre,  and  the  usual  cost  is  not  over  $4  to  $8.  The  cost 
will  depend  on  the  rates  paid  for  labor,  the  cost  of  transporting 
laborers'  tools  and  other  necessary  equipment,  the  abundance 
and  distribution  of  the  plants,  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the 
kind  of  vegetation  growing  with  the  larkspur.  The  expense 
per  acre  is  sure  to  be  considerably  less  than  the  value  of  a  ma- 
ture animal.  In  the  grubbing  operation  the  main  and  side  roots 
of  the  plant  must  be  cut  off  at  least  6  inches  below  the  ground. 
The  best  tool  for  grubbing  is  known  as  the  "  hazel  "  hoe  (Fig. 
87).  Any  blacksmith  who  will  follow  the  specifications  given 
in  the  figure  can  manufacture  this  simple  device  at  low  expense. 

Another  effective  method  of  eradicating  tall  larkspur  is  by 
cutting.  Extensive  studies  conducted  by  the  writer  in  the 
Wasatch  Mountains  of  central  Utah  have  demonstrated  clearly 
that  the  densest  patches  can  be  killed  in  three  years,  and  that 
only  four  cuttings  are  required.  Two  cuttings  were  made  the 
first  year,  when  the  plants  attained  an  average  height  of  about 
6  inches,  and  one  cutting  was  made  in  each  of  the  two  following 
years.  In  the  first  year  the  initial  cutting  was  made  about 
July  10  and  in  the  second  about  August  20.     In  the  two  fol- 

1  Aldous,  A.  E.,  "Eradicating  Tall  Larkspur  on  Cattle  Ranges  in  the  National 
Forests."    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  826,  1917. 


26o 


PRINCIPAL   STOCK-POISO^^NG  PLANTS 


lowing  years  the  plants  became  so  weakened  that  a  height  growth 
of  6  inches  was  not  attained  until  approximately  August  15. 

If  the  soil  is  free  from  rock  outcrop,  trees,  and  shrubs,  the 
actual  cost  of  cutting  is  less  than  that  of  grubbing.  However, 
because  the  cutting  method  requires  transporting  labor  to  the 

area  four  times  instead  of  once, 
as  the  grubbing  method  re- 
quires, the  latter  appears  to  be 
the  more  practicable.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  destroy 
larkspur  by  spraying  with 
plant  poisons,  but  the  results 
have  never  been  satisfactory. 
A  preventive  measure  which 
has  proved  satisfactory  under 
some  conditions  is  that  of  graz- 
ing the  larkspur  areas  with 
sheep  early  in  the  spring,  con- 
fining the  band  to  the  larkspur 
patches.  If  larkspur  is  grubbed 
or  grazed  over,  the  chances 
of  cattle  being  poisoned  are 
greatly  lessened,  for  a  large 
amount  of  the  plant  is  required  to  cause  death. 

Very  hungry  cattle  should  not  be  driven  over  areas  on  which 
larkspur  grows  luxuriantly,  and  they  should  be  watched  with 
especial  care  early  in  the  season,  as  they  are  likely  at  that  time 
to  be  in  poor  condition,  and  will  eat  plants  which  they  do  not 
touch  when  they  are  well  fed. 

The  heaviest  losses  from  larkspur  usually  occur  during  or 
immediately  after  a  storm.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to  eradi- 
cate or  fence  larkspur  patches  where  the  animals  go  for  shelter 
during  inclement  weather.  The  use  of  fences  is  to  be  recom- 
mended only  if  the  area  covered  by  larkspur  is  too  large  to  be 
grubbed.  Nearly  always  grubbing  is  cheaper  and  more  effective 
than  fencing. 


-HAZEL   HOE,    USED   IN   GRUB- 
BING TALL  LARKSPUR. 


POISONOUS   SPECIES  261 

DEATH   CAMAS    (Zygadenus) 

Other  common  names  for  Zygadenus  are  alkaligrass,  hog's- 
potato,  lobelia,  mystery-grass,  poison  sego,  soap  plant,  and 
squirrel  food. 

Species  belonging  to  this  genus  are  erect  perennial  herbs, 
growing  either  from  rootstocks  or,  as  in  the  western  species, 
from  a  tunicated  (membranous-covered)  bulb,  with  leafy  stems. 
The  leaves  are  long,  narrow,  and  grasslike;  the  flowers  are  green, 
yellow,  or  white,  borne  in  terminal  elongated  or  dense  racemes 
or  panicles.  The  perianth  is  spreading,  not  dropping  when 
wilted,  the  sepals  bearing  one  or  two  glands  near  the  base. 
The  capsule  is  3-lobed,  opening  to  the  base  at  maturity.  The 
species  pictured  in  Figure  88  (colored  plate)  is  Zygadenus  elegans. 
In  general  appearance  it  is  similar  to  that  of  other  western  spe- 
cies. 

Distribution  and  Habitat.  —  The  species  of  death  camas 
are  widely  distributed  throughout  the  United  States,  and  as  far 
north  as  Alaska.  Some  species  occur  in  abundance  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  Coast  and  are  found  at  all 
altitudes  at  which  sheep  graze.  The  plants  are  somewhat  ex- 
acting in  the  matter  of  site,  preferring  fairly  moist  localities 
into  which  water  seeps  slowly,  rather  than  wet,  swampy,  or 
very  dry  ground.  They  are  frequently  found  in  shallow  de- 
pressions or  ravines  along  the  slopes  of  hills  and  mountains,  and 
grow  either  as  scattered  specimens  mingled  with  other  vege- 
tation, or  in  masses,  sometimes  covering  several  acres.  Death 
camas  rarely  lasts  later  than  July,  although  the  life  of  its  herb- 
age varies  with  the  altitude  and  the  exposure  where  it  grows. 
The  resemblance  of  death  camas  to  grass  before  either  is  headed 
out,  its  appearance  earlier  than  most  other  herbaceous  plants, 
and  its  wide  distribution  render  it  especially  dangerous  to  stock, 
particularly  sheep. 

Poisonous  Species.  —  There  are  about  ten  species  of  Zygad- 
enus, all  of  which  are  supposed  to  be  more  or  less  poisonous, 
although  none  of  the  recent  investigators  has  offered  a  system- 
atic revision  of  the  genus.  Experiments  with  the  various  spe- 
cies prove  that  Z.  gramineus  is  the  most  virulent  species,  with 


262  PRINCIPAL  STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS 

Z.  venenosus  second,  and  that  Z.  elegans  and  Z.  paniculalus, 
probably  the  next  two  most  important  species,  are  only  about 
one-seventh  as  toxic' 

Losses  of  Stock  and  Animals  Poisoned.  —  Although  it  is 
impossible  to  estimate,  even  approximately,  the  total  loss  of 
sheep  from  death  camas  poisoning,  reports  from  various  lo- 
caUties  indicate  that  it  is  often  very  heavy.  For  instance,  in 
Montana  in  1900,  3,030  sheep  were  poisoned  by  death  camas 
and  636  of  this  number  died.''  Reports  from  Wyoming  record 
500  deaths  of  sheep  out  of  1,700  poisoned,  and  it  is  said  that 
20,000  sheep  died  from  this  cause  in  1909  in  one  county  alone. 
These  figures  do  not  include  lambs,  large  numbers  of  which  were 
poisoned  by  the  milk  of  the  ewes. 

Most  of  the  losses  of  stock  from  death  camas  poisoning  occur 
among  sheep,  but  horses  and  cattle  are  also  sometimes  poisoned. 
Stockmen  generally  are  not  famihar  with  the  plant  and  are 
therefore  likely  to  attribute  to  other  plants  losses  of  stock  which 
may  have  been  caused  by  death  camas.  The  heaviest  losses 
from  this  plant  seem  to  occur  in  Montana  and  Wyoming.  Heavy 
losses  are  also  reported  in  Utah,  Oregon,  and  California,  Swine 
are  believed  to  be  unharmed  by  death  camas;  indeed,  they  are 
said  to  thrive  on  the  bulb,  which  is  sometimes  called  hog's- 
potato.  The  heaviest  losses  of  sheep  occur  early  in  the  spring, 
before  other  forage  plants  are  abundant,  and  on  ranges  which 
have  been  overgrazed. 

Poisonous  Parts  of  Plant.  —  Investigators  differ  as  to  whether 
the  largest  number  of  cases  ot  poisoning  from  death  camas  are 
caused  by  the  bulb  or  by  the  aerial  portions  of  the  plant.  While 
the  entire  plant,  including  the  seeds,  is  known  to  be  poisonous, 
the  bulb  contains  a  large  amount  of  active  poison,  though 
evidently  less  than  the  seed.^    Whether  or  not  the  bulb  is  eaten 

'  Marsh,  C.  D.,  Clawson,  A.  B.,  and  Marsh,  H.,  "Zygadenus,  or  Death  Camas." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  125,  p.  35,  1915. 

Marsh,  C.  D.,  and  Clawson,  A.  B.,  "The  Stock-Poisoning  Death  Camas." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  1273,  1Q22. 

2  Chesnut,  V.  K.,  and  Wilcox,  E.  V.,  "The  Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  Montana." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Bot.,  Bui.  26,  p.  58,  1901. 

"  Marsh,  C.  D.,  Clawson,  A.  B.,  and  Marsh,  H.,  "Zygadenus,  or  Death  Camas." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  125,  p.  t,^,  1915. 


REMEDIES  263 

by  sheep  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  ground  and  the 
ease  with  which  the  bulb  can  be  pulled  up.  Ordinarily  the 
bulbs  are  pulled  out  of  the  ground  with  difficulty. 

Amount  Required  to  Cause  Death.  —  The  amount  of  death 
camas  required  to  cause  death  depends  upon  the  size  and  idio- 
syncrasies of  the  animal,  and  whether  it  is  very  hungry  or  not. 
A  mature  sheep  must  eat  from  i|  to  5  pounds  of  the  plant  to 
cause  fatal  poisoning,  and  lambs  correspondingly  less.  Ex- 
periments have  shown  that  the  fatal  amount  was  less  when  given 
as  a  drench  or  by  forced  feeding  than  when  mixed  with  other 
forage.  The  amount  of  the  plant  required  to  produce  poisoning 
also  depends  upon  the  length  of  time  over  which  feeding  extends. 
It  is  likely  that  sheep  are  poisoned  by  a  smaller  amount  when 
they  are  grazing  in  the  open  than  when  they  are  fed  in  corrals. 
The  poisonous  or  fatal  amount  for  cattle  and  horses  is  prac- 
tically the  same  as  for  sheep,  in  proportion  to  the  size  and 
weight  of  the  animal. 

Symptoms  of  Poisoning.  —  The  more  pronounced  general 
symptoms  of  death  camas  poisoning  in  the  higher  animals  are 
frothing  at  the  mouth,  vomiting,  restlessness,  weakened  heart 
action,  irregular,  spasmodic  breathing,  convulsions,  bloating, 
weakness  of  the  muscles  shown  in  a  staggering  gait  and  inability 
to  rise  when  down,  and  general  paralysis  (Fig.  89).  The  symp- 
toms are  not  uniform  in  all  poisoned  animals,  however;  they 
vary  according  to  the  manner  in  which  the  poison  was  admin- 
istered, and  with  the  length  of  the  illness.  Animals  sometimes 
lie  unconscious  for  several  hours  before  death. 

Remedies.  —  A  large  number  of  logical  remedies  for  death 
camas  poisoning  have  been  tried,  and,  although  some  have  seemed 
to  be  beneficial  in  experimental  treatment  under  favorable 
conditions,  most  of  them  are  not  only  impracticable  for  treating 
a  band  of  sheep  on  the  range,  but  are  more  expensive  than  the 
animals.  Bleeding,  a  remedy  commonly  used  by  herders,  is 
useless.  Any  antidote  is  ineffective  unless  given  as  soon  as 
symptoms  of  poisoning  appear,  for  the  poison  cannot  be  counter- 
acted after  it  leaves  the  stomach.  Medical  tests  carefully  con- 
ducted by  workers  in  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 


264 


PRIxNCIPAL  STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS 


culture  have  failed  to  develop  an  effective  antidote  against 
death  camas  poisoning. 

The  best  means  of  combating  death  camas  poisoning  is  pre- 
vention. All  stockmen  should  become  acquainted  with  the 
plant  and  take  every  precaution  to  keep  their  sheep  away  from 
it,  especially  in  early  spring  before  an  abundance  of  nutritious 
feed  is  available. 


WATER   HEMLOCK   (Cicuta) 

Other  common  names  for  Cicuta  are  cowbane,  beaver  poison, 

musquash  root,  musk- 
rat  weed,  parsnip, 
snakeweed,  snake- 
root,  and  spotted 
parsley.  The  water 
hemlocks  are  peren- 
nial umbellifers  grow- 
ing from  a  rootstock, 
with  pinnate  leaves 
and  toothed  leaflets. 
There  is  often  an  in- 
volucre present,  but 
never  an  involucel. 
The  flowers  are 
white ;  the  fruit  ovoid 
to  orbicular,  smooth, 
unwinged  but  with  prominent,  flattish  ribs,  the  lateral  ones 
largest;  the  oil  tubes  conspicuous  and  solitary.  The  seeds 
are  nearly  cylindrical.  A  striking  pecuharity  of  the  roots 
of  most  species  is  their  characteristic  musky  odor  and  hori- 
zontal chambered  partitions.  The  species  pictured  in  Figure 
90  (colored  plate)  —  Cicuta  occidentalis  —  is  a  typical  western 
plant,  which  closely  resembles  other  species  of  Cicuta  found  on 
pasture  lands. 

Distribution  and  Habitat.  —  Water  hemlock  grows  in  nearly 
every  country  of  the  North  Temperate  Zone,  and  in  western 
North  America  it  usually  occurs  between  elevations  of  about 


ureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 


Fig.  89.  —  ONE  OF  THE  CHARACTERISTIC  SYMP- 
TOMS OF  SHEEP  POISONING  BY  DEATH 
CAMAS    IS    WEAKNESS    IN    THE    FORE   LEGS. 


SYMPTOMS  OF  POISONING  265 

3,000  and  8,000  feet.  In  the  western  grazing  regions  the  plant 
is  found  from  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota,  through  Idaho, 
southward  through  Colorado  and  northeastern  Nevada  as  far 
as  New  Mexico,  throughout  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  the 
States  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  growth  areas  of  water  hemlock 
are  much  restricted.  It  is  found  only  in  moist  or  wet  localities, 
as  along  the  banks  of  streams  and  irrigation  ditches,  in  swamps, 
and  on  wild,  moist  hay  land,  usually  in  isolated  patches.  This 
habit  of  growth  makes  the  plant  comparatively  easy  to  deal  with. 

Losses  of  Stock  and  Animals  Poisoned.  —  Although  there  is 
a  considerable  difference  of  opinion  among  investigators  as  to 
the  number  of  animals  poisoned  by  water  hemlock,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  all  of  the  higher  animals,  including  man,  are  suscep- 
tible to  the  poison.  No  reliable  facts  are  available  upon  which  to 
base  an  estimate  of  the  losses;  but  it  is  known  that  large  num- 
bers of  cattle  die  from  this  cause  every  year,  though  the  total  loss 
is  much  lower  than  that  from  loco  and  larkspur.  Reports  from 
Oregon  record  deaths  of  100  cattle  in  one  year,  and  from  Mon- 
tana, of  150  sheep  and  as  many  cattle  in  a  single  season. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  animals  poisoned  by  water  hemlock 
die,  for,  unless  the  animals  are  treated  immediately  after  the 
first  symptom  of  poisoning  occurs,  there  is  small  chance  of  saving 
them.  Because  the  toxic  principle  acts  so  virulently  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  treat  a  large  number  of  cases  at  one  time. 

Poisonous  Parts  of  Plant.  —  Investigators  differ  again  as  to 
the  toxic  properties  of  the  stems  and  leaves  of  water  hemlock. 
The  general  opinion,  however,  is  that  the  whole  of  the  plant  is 
poisonous,  at  least  during  the  early  stages  of  its  growth,  although 
there  is  much  less  danger  in  the  part  above  ground.  Usually 
there  are  not  tops  and  seeds  enough  to  be  harmful  when  the 
plant  is  mixed  with  hay.  Most  of  the  poisonous  principle  of 
Cicuta  is  contained  in  the  root,  which  is  so  virulently  poisonous 
that  a  very  small  amount  appears  sufficient  to  kill  any  of  the 
higher  animals. 

Symptoms  of  Poisoning.  —  Symptoms  of  Cicuta  poisoning  are 
frothing  at  the  mouth,  excessive  flow  of  urine,  very  violent  con- 
vulsions, often  with  more  or  less  opisthotonos,  or  arching  of  the 


266  PRINCIPAL   STOCK-POISOXIXG   PLANTS 

back,  and  evidence  of  severe  pain.  The  breathing  is  apparently 
labored  and  the  heart  action  irregular,  although  it  is  difficult  to 
be  certain  on  these  last  two  points,  for  attempts  to  handle 
the  animals  make  the  spasms  more  violent.  The  action  of 
hemlock  poison  is  very  rapid.  Cattle  have  been  known  to  die 
within  fifteen  minutes  after  the  appearance  of  the  first  symptom 
of  poisoning.  Sometimes  the  animals  may  live  two  or  three 
hours. 

Remedies.  —  Antidotes  may  sometimes  be  given  with  suc- 
cess if  the  symptoms  of  poisoning  are  detected  at  once.  It  is 
seldom  worth  while  to  resort  to  treatment,  however,  as  the  action 
of  the  poison  is  so  rapid  and  the  spasms  are  so  violent  that 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  administer  remedies.  Hypodermic 
injections  of  morphine  as  a  sedative  to  quiet  the  convulsions,  in 
addition  to  a  purgative  to  carry  off  the  effects  of  the  poison,  may 
be  helpful.  A  drench  of  lard  or  bacon  grease  is  also  recommended 
by  some  investigators.  However,  most  cases  of  hemlock  poi- 
soning are  hopeless,  and  therefore  attention  should  be  paid  to 
methods  of  prevention  rather  than  of  cure. 

Control  and  Prevention  of  Losses.  —  Because  water  hemlock 
grows  in  wet  soil,  and  the  roots  are  only  about  6  inches  below 
the  ground,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  eradicate  the  plant  by 
grubbing.  If  for  any  reason  grubbing  is  impracticable,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  fence  stock  away  from  infested  localities,  for  water 
hemlock  is  almost  invariably  confined  to  isolated  patches. 
First  of  all,  it  is  necessary  for  stockmen  to  learn  to  distinguish 
the  water  hemlock  plant  from  harmless  species  of  the  same 
family. 

LUPINES   (Lupinus) 

The  lupines  are  given  many  common  names.  The  more  com- 
mon of  these  are  blue  bean,  blue  pea,  Indian  bean,  old  maid's- 
bonnet,  Quaker's-bonnet,  and  sundial.  The  name  loco  is  used 
limitedly,  but  only  by  persons  who  are  not  familiar  with  the 
true  loco  weeds. 

Distribution  and  Habitat.  —  Lupines  are  found  in  practically 
all  western  stock-grazing  regions.  They  grow  so  abundantly 
in  some  localities  that  solid  tracts  of  the  blossoms  are  visible  for 


POISONOUS   PARTS  OF  PLANT  267 

miles.  There  are  only  three  species  in  the  Atlantic  States,  and 
these  are  neither  so  widely  distributed  nor  so  abundant  as  in  the 
West,  where  about  twenty-five  species  are  represented  (Fig.  91, 
colored  plate) .  The  species  do  not  usually  occur  in  cultivated  soil 
or  in  swamps,  nor  often  on  river  fiats.  Most  of  them  prefer 
the  slopes  of  hills,  or  portions  of  mountain  ranges  at  moderate 
elevations.  Most  lupines  are  fairly  good  forage  plants  if  not 
eaten  at  the  poisonous  stage  of  their  growth.  Where  large  tracts 
of  dense  stands  occur  the  plants  are  often  cut  for  hay. 

Losses  of  Stock  and  Animals  Poisoned.  —  Experiments  in- 
dicate that  practically  all  animals  are  more  or  less  susceptible 
to  the  toxic  substances  contained  in  lupine.  Under  range  con- 
ditions, however,  lupine  may  be  regarded  as  almost  exclusively 
a  sheep  poison,  although  occasionally  horses  succumb  to  the 
plant.  A  few  cases  of  lupine  poisoning  of  range  cattle  have  been 
reported,  but  they  do  not  appear  to  be  well  authenticated. 
Many  heavy  losses  of  sheep  from  this  cause  during  late  summer 
and  fall  are  on  record.  One  report  states  that  150  sheep  out  of 
200  died  from  lupine  poisoning.  These  animals  were  very 
hungry  and  ate  the  plant  when  the  pods  were  developed,  but  the 
seeds  not  entirely  ripe. 

Lupine  hay,  or  hay  that  contained  as  high  as  50  per  cent  of 
lupine,  cut  when  the  plant  was  in  seed,  has  caused  severe  losses. 
In  the  winter  of  1898-99  over  3,600  sheep  died  in  Montana  from 
this  cause;  in  another  band  90  out  of  150  sheep  died  from  eating 
hay  which  had  been  cut  during  the  latter  half  of  July;  and  in 
still  another  band  of  2,500  sheep  900  died  within  48  hours  after 
eating  lupine  hay.  Sheep  have  often  been  poisoned  by  lupine 
after  snowstorms,  when  it  is  the  only  plant  remaining  above  the 
snow.  Out  of  one  band  of  2,500  sheep,  1,150  died  from  eating 
lupine  under  these  circumstances.^ 

Poisonous  Parts  of  Plant.  —  The  fruit  of  lupines  is  frequently 
the  cause  of  fatal  sheep  poisoning.  Post-mortem  examinations 
of  the  stomachs  of  poisoned  sheep  which  have  been  found  to 
contain  large  quantities  of  the  pods  and  seeds  of  lupine,  prove 

^  Chesnut,  V.  K.,  and  Wilcox,  E.  V.,  "The  Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of 
Montana."    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Bot,  Bui.  26,  p.  104,  1901. 


268 


PRINCIPAL  STOCK-POISONING  PLANTS 


conclusively  that  lupine  hay  is  very  dangerous  to  stock  if  it  is 
cut  when  the  pods  are  fully  developed  and  filled  with  ripe  seed. 
Sheep  are  especially  fond  of  the  green  pods  of  lupine,  which, 
like  the  fruit  of  many  leguminous  plants,  have  a  sweet  taste. 
Bloating  may  result  from  eating  very  large  quantities  of  the 
green  plant,  particularly  when  it  is  wet. 

Amount  Required  to  Cause  Death.  —  The  following  experi- 
ment is  on  record  showing  the  amount  of  lupine  required  to 
cause  fatal  poisoning.  Two  sheep  were  each  fed  150  medium- 
sized  lupine  pods  containing  nearly  ripe  seeds.  They  ate  the 
pods  readily,  and  both  showed  violent  S3nnptoms  of  poisoning 
within  45  minutes  after  eating.  Both  animals  died  one  hour 
later.  Marsh  and  Clawson  report  that  i|  pounds  of  fully  de- 
veloped fruit  (pods  and  seed)  produced  death  in  a  100-pound 
sheep.  Of  empty  pods  about  3.4  pounds  were  required  to  pro- 
duce similar  results.^ 

Symptoms  of  Poisoning.  —  Animals  poisoned  by  lupine  be- 
come crazed,  move 
about  with  an  irreg- 
ular, staggering  gait, 
froth  at  the  mouth, 
and  butt  at  any  object 
in  their  way  (Fig.  92). 
Spasms  and  falling  fits 
are  also  characteristic 
symptoms.  The  flow 
of  urine  is  always 
much  increased,  and 
it  may  contain  blood. 
It  sometimes  happens 
that  animals  poisoned 
by  lupine  do   not   die 

until  several  days  after  poisoning  occurs,  the  s5rmptoms  of 
the  poisoning  being  less  violent  Post-mortem  examinations 
show  that  the  effects  of  lupine  poison  on  the  animal  organism 

^  Marsh,  C.  D.,  Clawson,  A.  B.,  and  Marsh,  H.,  "Lupines  as  Poisonous  Plants." 
U.  S.  Deot.  of  Agr.  Bui.  405,  pp.  32  S3-  iQi^. 


(.Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.) 

Fig.  92.  — sheep  POISONED  BY  LUPINE  BECOME 
CRAZED  AND  BUTT  THEIR  HEADS  AT  ANY 
OBJECT  IN  THEIR  WAY. 


SYMPTOMS  AND   TREATMENT  OF  POISONED   STOCK         269 

are  similar  to  those  of  acute  loco  poisoning.  The  membranes 
of  the  brain  and  lungs  are  congested,  and  the  small  blood- 
vessels ruptured. 

Remedies.  —  Experiments  have  thus  far  shown  no  effective 
remedy  for  lupine  poisoning.  Bicarbonate  of  soda  administered 
as  soon  as  the  first  symptoms  appear  has  been  suggested  as  a 
possible  antidote,  but  it  would  have  to  be  administered  very 
promptly  in  order  to  be  effective.  This  method  might  be  used 
in  order  to  save  a  highly  valuable  animal,  but  it  is  not  practi- 
cable for  common  sheep.  Bleeding  is  sometimes  practiced  by 
herders,  but  the  value  of  this  procedure  is  not  supported  by  any 
scientific  evidence. 

Control  and  Prevention  of  Losses.  —  Preventive  measures 
are  best  in  this  as  in  other  kinds  of  plant  poisoning.  Sheep 
should  never  be  allowed  to  feed  on  lupine  when  the  pods  contain 
ripe  or  nearly  ripe  seed,  especially  if  the  animals  are  very  hungry. 
Lupine  should  not  be  cut  for  hay  until  the  pods  are  ripe  enough 
to  shed  their  seed  before  the  hay  is  stored.  This  may  usually 
be  done  after  the  middle  of  August;  but,  if  there  is  any  doubt 
in  the  matter,  one  or  two  sheep  should  be  fed  with  the  hay  as 
a  test  before  it  is  given  to  all  the  flock.  The  safer  way,  however, 
is  either  to  cut  the  plants  when  in  bloom  or  not  to  use  lupine 
for  forage  until  more  is  definitely  known  about  the  time  when 
the  plant  may  be  eaten  with  safety. 

SUMMARY   OF  SYMPTOMS  AND   TREATMENT  OF  STOCK 
POISONED  BY  PRINCIPAL  TOXIC  PLANTS 

Those  who  have  not  observed  the  symptoms  of  stock  suffer- 
ing from  having  eaten  poisonous  pasture  plants  of  known  identity, 
often  gain  the  idea  that  the  symptoms  are  much  the  same  for 
all  genera.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  symptoms  produced  by 
different  genera  of  toxic  plants  are  usually  more  or  less  distinc- 
tive. It  is  important  to  recognize  the  characteristic  symptoms 
produced  by  the  more  common  poisonous  plants,  as  such  knowl- 
edge immediately  suggests  what  precautions  should  be  taken  in 
handling  the  livestock  to  minimize  or  prevent  future  losses. 
The  following  summary  of  symptoms  of  poisoning,  and  of  treat- 


270 


PRINCIPAL   STOCK-POISONING   PLANTS 


ment  or  prevention  for  the  six  most  troublesome  poisonous  gen- 
era should  be  helpful  in  making  comparisons. 


Disease 

Symptoms 

Remedies 

Loco 

poisoning 

Effect  cumulative;     stupor; 
lack  of  muscular  control;   de- 
fective vision;    when  excited 
animal      becomes      frenzied, 
shies  at  nothing;    sheep  dif- 
ficult to  herd;    coat  shaggy; 
a  depraved  appetite  for  loco. 

No  certain  cure;  relieve 
constipation  by  giving  Ep- 
som salts,  one  pound  for  ma- 
ture cow;  also  strychnine 
3/20  to  4/20  of  a  grain;  re- 
move animal  from  loco-in- 
fested range  to  pasture  with 
forage  of  laxative  character. 

Larkspur 
poisoning 

Rapid  breathing,  pulse  fast; 
dizziness;     weakness  of  fore 
legs;        quivering    of    entire 
body;    constipation;    violent 
convulsions   in   final   stages; 
heavy  bloating  immediately 
following  death. 

For  mature  cow,  hypoder- 
mic injection  of  physostig- 
mine  2  gr.,  pilocarpine  hydro- 
chloride 4  gr.,  and  strychnine 
sulphate  i  gr.,  combined;  if 
animal  is  down,  have  head 
higher  than  body. 

Death 
camas 
poisoning 

Frothing  at  mouth;    vomit- 
ing;    restlessness;     irregular 
gait;   weakened  heart  action; 
rapid  breathing;    motor  par- 
alysis. 

No  specific  antidote;  keep 
sheep  away  from  camas-in- 
fested  lands. 

Water 

hemlock 

poisoning 

Very      severe      convulsions 
with    arching   of   back,    and 
evidence  of  severe  pain;    di- 
lated pupils;    irregular  heart 
action;     frothing  at  mouth; 
excessive  flow  of  urine. 

Give  morphine  hypodermic- 
ally;  wash  out  stomach  with 
coffee  or  whisky,  or  give 
drench  of  lard  or  bacon  grease. 

Lupine 
poisoning 

Animal  becomes  crazed;    ir- 
regular,      staggering       gait; 
frothing    at    mouth;       butts 
head   at   any   object;      later 
stupor;    loss  of  appetite;    at 
first  constipation,  later  diar- 
rhea. 

No  specific  antidote;  keep 
animals  off  lupine  range  when 
pods  contain  ripe  or  nearly 
ripe  seeds;  lupine  hay  should 
not  be  cut  when  pods  are  in 
seed. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  (o)  Compare  the  livestock  losses  caused  by  loco  with  those  of  other 
poisonous  plants,  {h)  Which  species  of  loco  causes  the  heaviest  livestock 
losses?    Outline  its  range  of  distribution. 

2.  (a)  What  are  the  typical  symptoms  of  loco  poisoning?  Do  the  symp- 
toms soon  pass  off  or  is  the  poison  cumulative?  {b)  Discuss  remedial  and 
preventive  measures  in  the  control  of  the  loco  disease. 

3.  (a)  How  are  larkspurs  popularly  classified?    Give  an  example  of  one 


QUESTIONS  271 

species  in  each  group,  (b)  To  what  extent  do  the  larkspurs  cause  poisoning 
(i)  of  cattle  and  (2)  of  sheep?  On  what  type  of  range  do  larkspurs  commonly 
grow? 

4.  (a)  What  parts  of  the  larkspur  plant  are  poisonous  to  stock,  and  at 
what  time  in  the  season  is  poisoning  most  liable  to  occur?  (b)  What  amount 
of  larkspur  must  cattle  ordinarily  consume  to  cause  death?  (c)  What  are 
the  symptoms  of  larkspur  poisoning?  (d)  Discuss  fully  the  remedial  and 
preventive  measures  recommended  for  the  control  of  larkspur  poisoning. 

5.  (a)  How  would  you  recognize  death  camas?  (b)  Are  all  species  of 
Zygadenus  poisonous?  (c)  What  parts  of  the  plant  are  believed  to  contain 
toxic  substances?  {d)  What  grazing  animals  are  most  seriously  affected  by 
the  grazing  of  death  camas?  {e)  What  amount,  by  weight,  of  death  camas 
must  be  consumed  by  sheep  to  cause  death? 

6.  (a)  What  are  the  typical  symptoms  of  death  camas  poisoning?  {b) 
What  remedial  or  preventive  measures  should  be  recognized  on  the  range? 

7.  (a)  Describe  the  characteristics  of  water  hemlock,  {b)  What  is  the 
distribution  and  habitat  of  the  genus  Cicuta?  (c)  To  what  extent  are  grazing 
animals  poisoned  by  water  hemlock?  {d)  What  parts  of  the  plant  are  poison- 
ous? 

8.  (a)  How  would  you  recognize  the  symptoms  of  water  hemlock  poison- 
ing? {b)  Discuss  fully  the  control  and  prevention  of  losses  from  water  hemlock 
on  the  range. 

9.  (a)  Under  what  conditions  should  lupines  be  listed  as  poisonous  plants? 
{b)  What  parts  of  the  lupine  plant  are  to  be  suspected  as  poisonous?  (c)  To 
what  extent  are  foraging  animals  poisoned  by  eating  lupine?  {d)  What 
amount  of  the  poisonous  parts  of  lupines  must  be  consumed  by  sheep  to  cause 
death?    How  are  cattle  affected  by  grazing  on  lupine? 

10.  Discuss  fully  the  symptoms  and  methods  of  control  of  lupine  poisoning 
on  pasture  lands. 

Note.  —  The  bibliography  for  the  general  subject  of  stock-poisoning 
plants  is  placed  at  the  end  of  Chapter  XIV  (page  289). 


CHAPTER  XIV 

POISONOUS  AND  MECHANICALLY  INJURIOUS  PLANTS 
OF   SECONDARY   OR   LOCAL   IMPORTANCE 

POISONOUS  PLANTS 
Milkweeds    (Asdepias).  —  Certain  species  of  milkweed  have 
long  been  known  to  contain  toxic  properties.     Whorled  milk- 


FiG.  93.  —  WHORLED  MILKWEED   {Asdepias  galioides). 

This  plant  is  not  cropped  by  stock  where  ample  good  feed  is  available,  but  it  is  eaten  under  stress 

of  hunger.    Losses  of  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  are  caused  by  it. 

weed  (Asdepias  galioides)  has  caused  losses  of  sheep,  cattle,  and 
horses  throughout  its  range,  and  in  some  sections  these  losses 

272 


"  LAURELS '»  273 

have  been  very  great.  It  occurs  on  the  dry  plains  and  foothills 
of  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  southern  and  southwestern  Colorado, 
and  southwestern  Utah.  Although  animals  do  not  devour  the 
plant  under  ordinary  circumstances,  they  eat  it  when  they  are 
very  hungry.  Poisoning  usually  occurs  when  stock  come  upon 
a  patch  of  milkweed  after  they  have  been  driven  some  distance. 
The  plant  is  sometimes  present  in  hay  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
produce  poisoning,  and  is  also  sometimes  eaten  as  forage  when 
other  plants  are  covered  by  snow. 

Whorled  milkweed  is  a  perennial  with  horizontal  spreading 
roots.  It  is  very  tough  and  difficult  to  eradicate.  As  the  seeds 
are  winged,  the  plant  is  readily  distributed.  It  grows  abun- 
dantly along  railroads,  on  the  banks  of  ditches,  and  in  waste 
places  (Fig.  93). 

Obviously  one  who  would  prevent  animals  being  poisoned 
from  milkweed  should  learn  to  recognize  the  plant  and  keep 
hungry  animals  away  from  it.  If  stock  must  be  driven  over 
areas  infested  by  milkweed,  either  the  plants  should  be  cut  and 
burned,  or  the  animals  should  be  well  fed  before  the  drive  is 
begun. 

Oak  (Quercus).  —  Although  no  clear-cut  results  have  been 
obtained  from  experiments,  it  is  thought  that  Gambel  oak 
{Quercus  Gambelii)  and  shinnery  oak  {Q.  Havardi)  are  responsible 
for  most  of  the  cases  of  so-called  oak  poisoning.  An  exclusive 
diet  of  the  young  buds  and  leaves  evidently  causes  trouble.  If, 
however,  oak  leaves  form  only  a  part  of  the  feed,  they  are  good 
forage.  When  eaten  alone  they  are  constipating,  and  this  may 
produce  illness  or  even  death.  Cattle  appear  to  be  the  only 
animals  affected. 

Laurels  "  {Ericaceae).  —  Heavy  losses  of  sheep  from  "  laurel  " 
poisoning  are  not  uncommon  on  western  ranges  where  other 
forage  is  scarce.  These  poisonous  species  may  be  mentioned : 
Smooth  menziesia  {Menziesia  glabella),  which  has  caused  serious 
losses  in  sheep  (Fig.  94);  black  "  laurel  "  {Leucothoe  Davisiae), 
which  is  extremely  toxic  to  sheep,  found  commonly  in  the 
northern  Sierras  in  California,  but  not  widely  distributed  (Fig. 
95);   Labrador  tea  {Ledum  glandulosum) ,  growing  in  the  moun- 


274     POISONOUS  AND   MECHANICALLY  INJURIOUS  PLANTS 


tains  of  California,  Oregon,  Washington,  Nevada,  and  in  the 
Rockies,  probably  the  cause  of  heavy  losses  of  sheep  in  Cali- 
fornia (Fig.  96);  white  "  laurel,"  or  azalea  (Azalea  occidentalis) , 
found  in  the  Coast  Range  Mountains  and  in  the  Sierras,  poison- 


FiG.  94.  — SMOOTH    MENZIESIA 

(Menziesia  glabella). 


Fig.  OS.  — black  "LAUREL' 

{Leucothoe  Davisiae). 


ous  to  sheep  (Fig.  97);  white  rhododendron  {Rhododendron 
albiflorum),  generally  distributed  in  the  mountains  of  the  North- 
west, undoubtedly  responsible  for  some  livestock  losses  (Fig.  98) ; 
and  caHcobush,  or  "  mountain  laurel  "  (Kalmia  latifolia),  which 
poisons  many  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  East  and  South,  its  range 
extending  from  Canada  and  New  Brunswick  to  Florida,  and 
through  the  Gulf  States  to  Louisiana  and  Arkansas  (Fig.  99). 
Sheep  "laurel,"  or  lambkill  (Kalmia  angustifolia) ,  swamp  eubot- 
rys  (Eubotrys  racemosa),  and  staggerbush  (Neopieris  mariana) 
should  be  mentioned  here,  as  all  these  cause  a  certain  amount 


WOODY  ASTER 


275 


of  loss  of  stock  in  the  spring  on  eastern  ranges,  especially  the 
sheep  "  laurel." 

The  symptoms  of  poisoning,  which  are  uniform  for  all  these 
species  of  "  laurel,"  are  nausea,  weakness,  salivation,  and  spas- 
modic breathing.     Poisoned  animals  usually  grate  their  teeth. 


Fig.  96.  — LABRADOR  TEA 
(Ledum  glandulosum). 


Fig.  97.  — VVTHTE  "LAUREL' 

(Azalea  occidentalis). 


No  completely  effective  remedy  for  "  laurel  "  poisoning  has 
yet  been  found,  but  purgatives  such  as  Epsom  salts  in  doses  of 
4  ounces  may  give  relief.  The  only  safe  way  is  for  the  one  who 
has  the  charge  of  the  animals  to  learn  to  recognize  the  plants  and 
keep  the  stock  from  eating  them. 

Woody  Aster  (Xylorrhiza  Parryi).  —  This  plant  is  found  in 
abundance  in  Wyoming,  and  is  reported  to  be  the  cause  of  heavy 


276     POISONOUS  AND   MECHANICALLY  INJURIOUS   PLANTS 

losses  of  sheep.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  poisonous,  but, 
because  of  its  tough,  fibrous  quahty,  sheep  are  not  fond  of  it 
and  will  not  touch  it  unless  they  have  no  other  forage  (Fig.  100). 


Fig.  q8.  — WHITK   RHODODENDRON  Fig.  99.  —  CALICOBUSH,    OR    "MOUN- 

{Rhodndeiuirnn  alhijlorum).  TAIN  LAUREL"    (Katmia  lalifolia). 

There  was  once  a  belief  that  woody  aster  caused  "  grub  in  the 
head  "  in  sheep,  but  it  is  now  known  that  a  fly  deposits  its  eggs 
on  the  head  of  the  sheep  and  the  grub  {Oestrus  ovis)  bores  in  and 
causes  the  disease. 

Colorado    Rubberweed,   or  Pingue    {Hymenoxys  floribunda).  — 

Experiments  have  shown  that  rubberweed  is  poisonous  to  sheep. 
However,  sheep  eat  the  plant  only  when  they  are  at  the  point  of 
starvation,  and  never  if  they  are  well  fed.  The  plant  has  aster- 
like flowers  and  grows  abundantly  in  some  regions  of  Arizona, 
New  Mexico,  Colorado,  and  Utah  (Fig.  loi). 


WESTERN  SNEEZEWEED  277 

Western  Sneeze  weed  {Helenium  HoopesU).  —  Western  sneeze- 
weed  occurs  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  Wyoming  to 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  and  westward  to  eastern  California. 
Its  range  in  elevation  is  from  about  6,500  to  10,500  feet.     It  is  a 


WOODY  ASTER    (Xylorrhiza  Parryi). 


stout  perennial  belonging  to  the  sunflower  family,  the  rays  of  the 
flower  being  of  an  orange  color  and  the  disk  brownish  orange 
(Fig.  102). 

Experiments  in  feeding  have  shown  that  this  plant  is  the  cause 
of  the  so-called  "  spewing  sickness  "  in  sheep.     Many  sheep 


278      POISOXOUS  AND   MECHANICALLY  INJURIOUS  PLANTS 


died  from  this  disease  during  the  summer  of  1915  in  the  Wasatch 
Mountains  in  Utah.  Sheep  are  the  principal  victims,  as  horses 
and  cattle  do  not  eat  enough  of  the  plant  to  cause  harm  under 
ordinary  range  conditions.     The  symptoms  of  poisoning  from 


Fig.  ioi.  —  PINGUE    {Ilymenoxys  Jloribunda). 


Fig.  102.  —  SNEEZEWEED 
{Ilelenium  Iloopesii). 


sneezeweed  are  nausea,  frothing  at  the  mouth,  labored  breathing, 
weakened  heart  action,  diarrhea,  and  bloating. 

Acute  poisoning  from  sneezeweed  is  rare,  though  it  may  occur 
if  sheep  eat  large  quantities  of  the  plant  when  they  are  hungry. 
The  poison  is  cumulative  and  ordinarily  acts  slowly.  Most 
cases  are  the  result  of  long-continued  feeding. 

No  remedy  can  be  recommended  from  experiments  thus  far 


FERN  279 

conducted.  Prevention  is,  therefore,  the  only  reliable  method. 
Depleted  ranges  often  support  heavy  stands  of  sneezeweed.  As 
the  range  is  built  up  this  plant  is  replaced  by  good  forage 
species. 

Aconite  {Aconitum  Columbianum).  —  Aconite,  or  monks- 
hood, is  an  erect,  smooth,  single-stemmed  plant  2  to  5  feet  high, 
with  numerous  leaves  at  the  base  and  a  long  terminal  cluster  of 
conspicuous  "  hooded  "  blue  flowers  (Fig.  103).  The  plant  re- 
sembles tall  larkspur,  with  which  it  is  commonly  confused,  and 
grows  in  close  proximity  to  it.  It  is  virtually  impossible  for  the 
layman  to  tell  aconite  and  larkspur  apart  by  the  leaves  alone, 
but  when  they  are  in  flower  they  are  readily  distinguishable  by 
anyone.  The  larkspur  flower  is  provided  with  a  conspicuous 
spur;  the  aconite  flower  is  without  a  spur  but  is  conspicuously 
hooded.  The  distribution  of  aconite  is  approximately  the  same 
as  that  of  larkspur,  the  plant  being  common  in  the  mountains 
of  Montana,  South  Dakota,  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Arizona,  and 
westward  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

Aconite  is  known  to  contain  toxic  properties,  and  probably 
is  more  poisonous  than  its  closest  relatives,  the  larkspurs.  How- 
ever, it  is  not  palatable  to  cattle,  and  therefore  causes  no  losses 
to  this  class  of  stock.  It  is  doubtful,  too,  whether  sheep  are 
ever  fatally  poisoned  by  aconite. 

Wild  or  Choke  Cherry  {Prunus  demissa).  —  Extensive  feed- 
ing experiments  with  wild  cherry  have  proved  that  the  leaves  at 
times  contain  the  deadly  prussic  acid  and  are  then  extremely 
poisonous  to  livestock  (Fig.  104).  It  is  well  known  that  animals, 
particularly  sheep,  are  not  infrequently  killed  on  the  range  by 
browsing  upon  this  plant.  Losses  usually  occur  along  driveways, 
however,  where  an  abundance  of  wild  cherry  is  found,  and  where 
other  feed  is  scarce.  The  trailing  of  sheep  along  closely  cropped 
driveways  bordered  with  wild  cherry  should  be  avoided  if  possible. 
If  it  is  necessary  for  the  animals  to  pass  along  infested  driveways, 
they  should  be  well  fed  before  they  start  on  the  trail.  Death 
from  wild  cherry  comes  very  quickly,  and  therefore  no  antidote 
is  recommended. 

Fern  (Pteridium).  —  The   common   bracken    fern   {Pteridium 


28o     POISONOUS  AND  MECHANICALLY  IxNJURIOUS  PLANTS 


Fig.  103.  — aconite    (Aconitum  Columbtanum). 
This  plant  contains  substances  toxic  to  foraging  animals,  but,  not  being  palatable,  it  is  not  a  pasture 
pest.     Note  the  "hooded"  flowers  of  aconite  a  characteristic  which  readily  distinguishes  it  from 
larkspur,  whose  flowers  have  a  conspicaous  spur,  as  shown  by  the  three  blooms  to  the  left  in  the 
figure. 


ERGOT 


281 


aguilinum),  a  species  widely  distributed  in  North  America, 
should  be  mentioned  as  one  of  the  poisonous  plants  to  be  reckoned 
with.  Few  cases  of  stock  poisoning  from  fern  are  on  record  in 
the  country,  but  it  is  likely  that  all  classes  of  stock  would  be 

susceptible  to  the  poison 
if  they  were  to  feed  gen- 
erously upon  the  plant. 
Some  losses  in  sheep  are 
reported  in  the  North- 
west from  the  eating  of 
bracken  fern  (Fig.  105). 

Ergot  {Claviceps  pur- 
purea). —  Ergot  is  a  par- 
asitic fungus,  having  the 
appearance  of  a  black 
spur,  straight  or  slightly 
curved,  one-fourth  to 
one-half  of  an  inch  in 
length,  which  grows  in 
theheads  of  some  grasses. 
It  occurs  on  a  number 
of  host  plants,  such  as 
wild  rye  (Elymus),  vari- 
ous meadow  grasses, 
bluejoint,  couch  grass 
(Agropyron),  Junegrass 
(Koeleria),  and  others. 
It  occurs  most  frequently  on  wild  rye,  and  may  be  present 
wherever  that  plant  grows  (Fig.  106).  It  usually  appears  in 
the  middle  of  August  and  remains  until  late  in  the  fall. 

Ergot  produces  two  forms  of  poisoning  —  the  nervous  form 
and  the  gangrenous  form.  Symptoms  in  both  forms  of  the 
disease  are  fatigue,  cold  sweat,  nervousness,  paralysis  of  the 
entire  body  beginning  with  the  tongue  and  throat,  and  digestive 
disturbances.  In  pregnant  animals  the  poison  often  causes 
abortion.  The  gangrenous  form  of  ergotism  is  characterized 
by  swelling  and  the  formation  of  dry  gangrene  of  the  hoofs,  fol- 


FiG.  104. —  WILD   CHERRY   (Prunus   demissa). 


282      POISONOUS  AND   MECHANICALLY  INJURIOUS  PLANTS 

lowed  by  death  from  exhaustion.     Large  quantities  of  ergot  are 
required  to  cause  fatal  results. 

As  soon  as  evidence  of  poisoning  appears  the  animals  must  be 
removed  from  the  infected  plants.     A  regular  dose  of  Glauber's 


2 


,7^/v^ 


Fig.  ios.  — bracken   FERN   {Pteridium  aquilinum). 

salts  should  be  administered  to  aid  in  eliminating  the  poison. 
As  the  poison  must  be  gradually  eliminated  from  the  system, 
the  results  of  treatment  are  necessarily  slow. 


DEATH  CUP,  OR  DEADLY  AMANITA 


283 


Growth  of  the  ergot  fungus  may  be  pre- 
vented by  mowing  the  grass  during  August, 
September,  and  October. 

Fly  Agaric,  or  Fly  Amanita  (Amanita 
muscaria).  —  This  mushroom  takes  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  an  extract  of  it  is  used  for  fly 
poison.  It  is  extremely  poisonous  and  is 
among  the  best  known  of  the  toxic  fungi.  Fly 
agaric  is  common  in  the  northern  and  eastern 
parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  large 
fungus,  grows  singly,  and  is  found  commonly 
in  pine  groves  and  in  poor,  dry  soil.  The 
gills  and  stalk  are  always  white,  never  pink 
or  purple.  The  stalk  is  hollow  and  bulbous 
at  the  base,  and  has  irregular  fringed  scales 
on  the  lower  part  and  a  large  membranous 
collar  or  frill  hanging  from  the  upper  part. 
The  pileus,  or  caplike  top,  is  bright  yellow, 
orange,  or  deep  red.  The  surface  is  smooth 
and  poHshed  and  always  bears  prominent 
wartlike  scales  (Fig.  107).  The  appearance 
of  fly  agaric  is  so  characteristic  that  it  is  easy 
to  distinguish  it.  Notwithstanding  this  fact, 
however,  the  fungus  frequently  causes  poison- 
ing among  human  beings  and  sometimes 
among  foraging  animals. 

The  symptoms  of  poisoning  are  difficult 
breathing,  depressed  heart  action,  and  an 
abnormal  nervous  condition.  Stupor  foUows, 
and  death  from  weakened  heart  action  occurs 
in  eighteen  hours  to  two  or  three  days. 

Death  Cup,  or  Deadly  Amanita  (Amanita 
phalloides).— This    fungus  is  fairly  common 
"S^S^OT^icSSZ'  ^"  Europe  and   North   America.      It  grows 
purea)  WITH  WHEAT-  smgly  m  woods  and  groves  and  at  the  edges 
THE  01    nelds    and    pastures,    but    rarely    in    the 


mus   Iriticoides)    AS 
HOST  PLANT. 


open.    It  prefers  damper,  less  sandy  soil  than 


284       POISONOUS  AND  MECHANICALLY  INJURIOUS  PLANTS 

fly  agaric.  The  pileus  is  shiny  white,  pale  yellow,  or  olive  in 
color,  without  distinct  scales.  When  moist  it  is  slightly  sticky. 
The  gills  and  the  long,  slender  stalk  are  white.  The  base  of  the 
stalk  is  more  bulbous  than  that  of  fly  agaric,  and  is  bordered  by 


Fig.  107.  —  FLY  AGARIC    {Amanita  muscaria). 

This  fungus  sometimes  causes  deaths,  both  in  the  human  family  and  among  foraging  animals. 

An  extract  of  it  is  used  effectively  as  fly  poison. 

a  sac-like  membrane,   often  large,   but  usually  only  a  mem- 
branous rim  (Fig.  108). 

The  toxic  principle  acts  directly  on  the  red  blood  corpuscles, 
lowering  the  vitality  of  the  animal.  It  acts  slowly,  however, 
the  first  symptoms  usually  appearing  from  nine  to  fourteen  hours 
after  eating.  The  symptoms  are  severe  pain  in  the  abdomen, 
nausea,  and  diarrhea,  followed  in  two  to  eight  days  by  coma, 
and  death  soon  results.  There  is  no  known  antidote  for  this 
poison. 

MECHANICALLY  INJURIOUS  PLANTS 

A  large  number  of  plant  genera  contain  species  that  cause 
mechanical  injury  to  stock.  Sandburs,  cockleburs,  and  certain 
cacti  need  only  be  mentioned  in  this  connection.     Many  such 


MECHANICALLY  INJURIOUS   PLANTS 


28s 


plants  cause  considerable  annoyance  to  livestock,  the  effective 
plant  parts  frequently  entering  into  the  flesh  of  the  animals  and 
causing  inflammation  of  varying  degrees  of  seriousness.  Me- 
chanical injuries  caused  by  plants  on  range  and  pasture  are  in 
evidence  mostly  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  about  the  time  of  seed 


Fig.  108.  — death   CUP    (Amanita   phalloides). 


maturity.  Occasionally,  also,  mechanical  injury  occurs  from 
the  feeding  of  hay  which  contains  troublesome  seed  heads  or  other 
parts  of  the  plant  that  lodge  in  the  eyes,  tongue,  throat,  and  hide 
of  foraging  animals  and  cause  pain,  loss  in  weight,  and  sometimes 
death. 

The  most  serious  mechanical  injuries  brought  about  by  vege- 
tation on  range  and  pasture  are  caused  by  grasses.  Among  these, 
species  embraced  in  the  following  genera  are  the  most  injurious: 
Bromegrass  (Bromus);  barley  and  squirreltail  grasses  (Hordeum 


286        POISONOUS  AND   MECHANICALLY  INJURIOUS  PLANTS 

and  Sitanion,  respectively);  needlegrass  (Stipa);  three-awn 
{Aristida);   and  gramagrass  (Bouteloua). 

Bromegrasses.  —  Downy  bromegrass,  sometimes  called  June 
brome  {Bromus  teclorum);  hairy  bromegrass  {B.  villosus);  and 
red  bromegrass  {B.  rubens)  are  the  most  troublesome  species  of 
the  genus.  The  causes  of  the  injury  inflicted  by  these  plants  are 
much  the  same;  the  injurious  effects,  likewise,  are  practically 
identical.  At  seed  maturity  the  seed  head  breaks  up  readily. 
As  the  animal  grazes,  the  florets  by  means  of  the  sharp  calluses, 
and  later  the  long  rough  awns,  penetrate  and  cause  sores  and  in- 
flammation of  the  skin,  eyes,  lips,  teeth,  tongue,  throat,  stomach, 
and  intestines.  In  the  foothills  of  California  red  bromegrass  in 
the  autumn  is  often  very  injurious  to  cattle,  causing  "  big  jaw  " 
and  other  complications. 

Barley  and  Squirreltail  Grasses.  —  These  closely  related 
grasses  are  probably  the  most  destructive  of  the  physically  in- 
jurious plants.  In  many  parts  of  the  West  the  awned  spikelets, 
especially  those  of  squirreltail  barley  {Hordeum  jubatum),  (Fig. 
109),  are  very  injurious,  particularly  to  sheep,  causing  severe 
suffering  and  heavy  losses  of  ewes  and  lambs  (Fig.  no).  Losses 
caused  to  lambing  ewes  by  the  feeding  of  hay  containing  mature 
seed  heads  of  squirreltail  barley  are  sometimes  very  heavy. 

Humane  considerations,  as  well  as  self-interest,  should  forbid  the  use  of  hay- 
in  which  it  [barley  grass]  makes  up  any  large  part  of  the  bulk.  This  grass  is 
worth  little  for  grazing;  and  when  put  up  in  hay  it  is  dangerous.  Fields  and 
meadows  on  which  it  grows  would  be  improved  by  its  destruction.  No  other 
weed  concerns  the  users  and  producers  of  hay  for  sheep-feeding  so  much  as 
squirreltail  grass.  It  is  dangerous  as  soon  as  it  heads;  when  dried  and  fed  in 
considerable  quantities  it  becomes  obnoxious  and  destructive.^ 

The  foregoing  statement  applies  also  to  wall  barley  ( Hordeum 
murinum).  Pacific  barley  {H.  Gussoneamim) .  and  to  all  species  of 
squirreltail  grass  {Sitanion).  Of  these,  however,  squirreltail 
barley  is  the  most  troublesome.  As  many  as  600,000  awns  are 
sometimes  produced  by  a  single  plant. 

When  a  sheep's  back,  neck,  and  flanks  are  densely  pierced  by 

1  Fleming,  C.  E.,  and  Peterson,  N.  F.,  "Don't  Feed  Fox-Tail  Hay  to  Lambing 
Ewes."    Nev.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  97,  1919. 


BARLEY  AND   SQUIRRELTAIL   GRASSES  287 

innumerable  needlelike  awns  of  these  grasses,  the  animal  walks 
about  stiffly,  with  an  unnatural  gait,  and  seeks  but  little  food. 


Fig.  109.  —  SQUIRRELTAIL   BARLEY    (Hordeum  jubatum). 

A  very  common  example  of  a  grass  whose  awned  spikelets  are  very  injurious  to  foraging  animals, 

especially  sheep. 

Eventually  the  skin  loses  its  pHability,  and  the  wool  feels  harsh 
and  Hfeless.  Naturally  such  wool  commands  a  low  price 
on   the    market.      Finally    the    animal    refuses    to    eat    and 


288       POISONOUS  AND  MECHANICALLY   INJURIOUS  PLANTS 

dies  from  starvation  or  from  some  disease  resulting  from  low 
vitality. 

If  it  is  necessary  that  sheep  be  fed  hay  containing  much 
squirreltail  or  barley  grass  that  has  headed  out,  the  hay  should 
be  scattered  out  on  the  ground  rather  than  fed  in  racks.  This 
makes  it  possible  for  the  animals  to  select  their  feed  somewhat 
carefully.  Also,  if  that  part  of  the  hay  in  the  stack  which  con- 
tains mainly  squirreltail  or  barley  grass  is  not  fed,  considerable 
injury  to  animals  or  much  actual  loss  may  be  avoided.  When 
it  is  possible,  it  is  best  to  cut  the  hay  on  lands  that  contain  an 
abundance  of  barley  or  squirreltail  grass  or  even  to  use  such 
lands  for  pasture  before  the  seed  heads  are  sufficiently  developed 
to  cause  mechanical  injury  to  stock. 

Needlegrasses.  —  Devil's  darning  needle  {Stipa  spartea)  and 
ncedle-and-thrcad  {S.  comata)  are  conspicuous  species  of  the 
genus  in  the  injuries  which  they 
inflict  upon  Hvestock.  The  awns 
of  these  grasses  are  several  inches 
long;  the  spikelets  or  florets  are 
sharp-pointed  and  readily  bore 
into  the  skin  and  intestines  of 
animals.  At  maturity  the  awn 
bends  near  the  middle  and  becomes 

^Naadah^pcnmcntsuunn  tightly      twlstcd      bcloW      thc      flrst 

'BLiNDED™DYTfFACE\low^     bend.      Variation  in  the  humidity 
INNUMERABLE  ABSCESSES.  of  the  air  causcs  the  awn  to  twist 

The  trouble  has  been  caused  by  the  awns  i  ,      •    .  j     •        i.u*  iU 

of  squirreltail  barley.  and  untwist,  and  m  this  way  the 

sharp  -  pointed  flo  re  t  penetrates 
the  surface  to  which  it  is  attached.  In  range  stock  serious 
inflammation  and  peritonitis  are  sometimes  caused  by  these 
grasses.  Occasionally,  if  the  spikelets  get  into  the  eyes  of  sheep, 
blindness  is  caused  and  eventually  death  from  starvation. 

Three-awn.  —  Dogtown  three-awn  (Aristida  adscensionis)  and 
Fendler's  three-awn  {A.  Fendleriana)  in  some  localities  are 
troublesome  when  the  seed  is  ripe.  At  maturity  the  seed,  with 
its  awn  attachment,  is  blown  about  by  the  wind,  the  sharp- 
pointed  callus  being  in  advance.    These  awns  work  their  way 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  289 

into  the  wool  and  skin  of  sheep  and  into  the  nostrils  and  eyes  of 
all  classes  of  stock. 

Gramagrass.  —  Needle  grama  {Bouteloua  arislidoides)  is  prob- 
ably the  only  species  of  gramagrass  which  is  mechanically 
injurious  to  foraging  animals.  The  entire  spike  breaks  from  the 
common  axis,  the  segments  being  provided  with  a  sharp  callus 
point  at  the  base.  The  effect  of  these  segments  on  persons  is 
anything  but  pleasant.  The  sharp  base  of  the  spikes  penetrates 
the  stockings  and  other  clothing  and  then  breaks  off.  The  skin 
is  left  full  of  "  needle  points." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  (a)  To  what  extent  are  milkweeds  poisonous?  {h)  How  may  whorled 
milkweed  be  recognized?  To  what  extent  does  whorled  milkweed  cause  live- 
stock poisoning?  Where  does  it  occur?  (c)  What  means  of  prevention  are 
recommended  where  whorled  milkweed  occurs  more  or  less  abundantly? 

2.  Under  what  conditions  may  oak  poisoning  occur? 

3.  (a)  What  species  of  "laurel"  sometimes  cause  livestock  poisoning? 
{b)  What  are  the  symptoms  of ' '  laurel "  poisoning?  What  remedies  are  recom- 
mended? 

4.  Is  rubberweed  poisonous  to  both  cattle  and  sheep? 

5.  (a)  Where  does  western  sneezeweed  occur?  Is  it  poisonous  to  both 
sheep  and  cattle?  {h)  Discuss  (i)  the  character  of  sneezeweed  poisoning,  and 
(2)  the  remedy  recommended. 

6.  Discuss  aconite  as  a  poisonous  plant. 

7.  Under  what  conditions  does  wild  cherry  cause  livestock  losses? 

8.  (a)  What  are  the  results  to  animals  that  consume  considerable  quantities 
of  ergot?     (6)  What  treatment  is  recommended  for  animals  poisoned  by  ergot? 

9.  (a)  What  is  fly  agaric,  and  to  what  extent  does  it  cause  livestock  losses? 
{b)  Discuss  death  cup  as  a  plant  poisonous  to  pasture  stock. 

10.  Discuss  the  waj^s  in  which  livestock  is  injured  mechanically  by  vegeta- 
tion, and  the  different  effects  produced. 

11.  (a)  What  family  of  plants  is  the  cause  of  a  large  part  of  the  mechanical 
injuries  suffered  by  livestock?  {b)  What  is  the  general  character  of  these 
mechanical  injuries?  (c)  What  genera  of  grasses  are  conspicuous  because  of 
the  mechanically  injurious  species  which  they  embrace? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Aldous,  a.  E.  Eradicating  Tall  Larkspur  on  Cattle  Ranges  in  the  National 
Forests.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  826,  1917. 

Chesnut,  V.  K.,  and  Wilcox,  E.  V.  The  Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of 
Montana.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Bot.,  Bui.  26,  1901. 


290     POISONOUS   AND   MECIL\NICALLY  INJURIOUS    PLANTS 

Crawford,  Albert  C.     The  Larkspurs  as  Poisonous  Plants.     U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  iii,  Pt.  i,  1907. 
Mountain  Laurel,  a  Poisonous  Plant.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of 

Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  121,  Pt.  2,  1908. 
The  Poisonous  Action  of  Johnson  Grass.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur. 
of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  90,  Pt.  4,  1906. 
Fleming,  C.  E.     Range  Plants  Poisonous  to  Sheep  and  Cattle  in  Nevada. 

Nev.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  95,  1918. 
Fleming,  C.  E.,  and  Peterson,  N.  F.    Don't  Feed  Fox-Tail  Hay  to  Lambing 

Ewes.     Nev.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  97,  1919. 
Fleming,  C.  E.,  Peterson,  N.  F.,  et  al.     Arrow-Grass,   a  New  Stock- 
Poisoning  Plant.     Nev.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  98,  1920. 
The  Narrow-leaved  Milkweed.     Nev.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  99,  1920. 
The  Poison  Parsnip,  or  Water   Hemlock.     Nev.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
100,  1920. 
Gail,  F.  W.,  and  Hahner,  A.  R.     Some  Poisonous  Plants  of  Idaho.    Idaho 

Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  86,  1916. 
Glover,  G.  H.,  and  Robbins,  W.  W.     Colorado  Plants  Injurious  to  Live- 
stock.    Colo.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  211,  1915. 
Glover,  G.  H.,  Newsom,  I.  E.,  and  Robbins,  W.  W.     A  New  Poisonous 
Plant,  the  Whorled  Milkweed.     Colo.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  246, 
1918. 
Hall,  H.  M.,  and  Yates,  H.  S.     Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  California. 

Cal.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  249,  1915. 
Jacobson,  C.  Alfred.     Water  Hemlock  (Cicuta).     Nev.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 

Tech.  Bui.  81,  1915. 
Marsh,   C.   Dwight.     The  Loco-Weed  Disease.     U.   S.   Dept.   of  Agr. 
Farmers  Bui.  380,  1909. 
The  Loco-Weed  Disease  of  the  Plains.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of 

Animal  Ind.,  Bui.  112,  1909. 
Menziesia,  a  New  Stock-Poisoning  Plant  of  the  Northwestern  States. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind..  Leaflet,  1914. 
Prevention  of  Losses  of  Live  Stock  from  Plant  Poisoning.     U.  S.  Dept. 

of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  720,  1916. 
Stock  Poisoning  Due  to  Scarcity  of  Food.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers 

Bui.  536,  1913. 
Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  the  Range.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  575, 
1918. 
Marsh,  C.  Dwight,  and  Clawson,  A.  B.    The  Stock-Poisoning  Death 
Camas.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  1273,  1922. 
White  Snakeroot,  or  Richweed,  as  a  Stock-Poisoning  Plant.   U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Animal  Ind.,  Leaflet  26,  1918. 
Marsh,  C.  Dwight,  Clawson,  A.  B.,  and  Marsh,  Hadleigh.     Cicuta,  or 
Water  Hemlock.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  69,  1914. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  291 

Marsh,  C.  Dwight,  Clawson,  A.  B.,  and  Marsh,  Hadleigh.    Lupines  as 
Poisonous  Plants.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  405,  1916. 
Zygadenus,  or  Death  Camas.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  125,  1915. 
May,  W.  L.     Whorled  Milkweed.     Colo.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  255,  1920. 
Pammel,  L.  H.     a  Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants.     The  Torch  Press,  Cedar 

Rapids,  la.,  igio-ii. 
Swingle,  D.  B.,  and  Welch,  H.     Poisonous  Plants  and  Stock  Poisoning 
on  the  Ranges  of  Montana.     Mont.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir.  51,  1916. 


PART  FOUR 
PASTURE  IMPROVEMENTS  AND  RESEARCH  METHODS 


CHAPTER  XV 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   WATERING   PLACES   FOR   RANGE 
AND   PASTURE   STOCK 

From  the  earliest  settlement  of  the  country  the  availability 
of  water  has  been  a  factor  of  primary  consideration.  In  the 
stocking  of  the  grazing  grounds  of  the  far  West  the  water  avail- 
able for  foraging  animals  was,  as  it  is  now,  a  determining  factor 
in  the  use  of  the  forage  crop.  The  pioneer  stockmen  invariably 
located  the  center  of  their  operations  close  to  accessible  water. 
Later  competition  forced  them  back  into  the  rugged  country 
where,  likewise,  they  laid  claim  to  the  lakes  and  accessible  pools. 
Here  water  was  abundant  or  scarce  according  to  the  amount  of 
rain  or  snow  on  the  watersheds. 

Availability  of  Water.  —  Only  a  portion  of  the  vast  arid  range 
of  the  West  has  ample  water  so  distributed  as  to  make  possible 
the  efficient  use  of  the  forage  crop  year  after  year  and  the  main- 
tenance of  the  forage  yield  even  with  the  proper  management  of 
the  lands.  In  many  places  ample  water  for  livestock  is  avail- 
able only  early  in  the  season,  and,  as  all  of  the  feed  produced 
cannot  be  cropped  during  this  short  period,  a  large  proportion 
is  lost  annually. 

No  stock  range  can  be  efficiently  utilized  if  there  is  an  uneven 
or  inadequate  distribution  of  water.  The  abundance  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  water  supply  determines  more  than  any  other 
single  factor  the  time  in  the  season  when  the  forage  may  be 
cropped,  and  hence  regulates  the  value  of  the  range  and  deter- 
mines the  methods  of  managing  the  range  as  well  as  the  stock. 

Fortunately  man's  control  over  the  distribution  of  watering 
places  in  many  localities  is  far  reaching.  It  is  the  aim  to  point 
out  here  (i)  how  and  under  what  conditions  stock- watering 
places  may  be  developed  economically;  (2)  the  best-known 
methods  of  conserving  and  amplifying  the  water  supply;  and 
(3)  the  desirable  distribution  of  water  for  stock  on  lands  of  vari- 
ous types  and  having  different  topographic  features. 


296  DEVELOPMENT  OF  WATERING  PLACES 

Water  Requirements  of  Livestock.  —  In  the  development  of 
water  on  range  and  pasture  it  is  important  to  consider  the 
individual  water  requirements  of  the  different  classes  of  stock. 
The  quantity  of  water  an  animal  will  drink  varies  greatly  with 
the  class  of  feed,  the  topographic  features,  and  the  weather 
conditions.  The  requirement  of  mature  cattle  or  horses  during 
warm  weather,  especially  when  cropping  upon  dry  feed,  is 
approximately  no  pounds  or  13  gallons  of  water  for  24  hours, 
whereas,  when  feeding  on  fresh  grass,  they  will  consume  only 
about  60  pounds  or  7.2  gallons  in  24  hours.  It  is  probable  that 
10  gallons  of  water  per  day  of  24  hours  for  cattle  and  horses  is 
slightly  in  excess  of  that  consumed  on  high  mountain  summer 
range,  whereas  12  gallons  per  day  is  ample  for  mature  cattle 
and  horses  on  the  lower,  warmer  grazing  lands.^ 

Mature  sheep  require  from  j  to  i|  gallons  of  water  daily  ac- 
cording to  feed  and  weather.  If  the  forage  is  green  and  lush, 
sheep  do  well  without  watering  for  long  periods  at  a  time.^ 
These  conditions  of  succulent  forage  the  herder  frequently  takes 
advantage  of  and  does  not  water  oftener  than  every  8  or  10  days, 
unless  the  water  supply  is  nearby.  Under  similar  conditions 
of  feed,  cattle  require  only  a  small  amount  of  water.  For 
water-development  purposes  generally  it  is  well  to  estimate 
10  to  12  gallons  per  day  for  cattle  and  horses  and  i|  gallons  per 
day  for  sheep. 

Distribution  of  Water.  —  On  the  cattle  range  of  the  plains 
and  mesas  reasonably  good  utilization  of  the  forage  is  secured 
if  cattle  do  not  have  to  travel  more  than  2^  miles  to  water.^ 
This  would  require  the  presence  of  watering  places  5  miles  apart, 
or  a  drinking  place  for  approximately  13,200  acres.  In  the 
Southwest,  where  gramagrass  occurs  in  average  density,  such  a 
tract  will  carry  approximately  500  cattle  the  year  round, 
averaging  26.4  acres  to  the  head. 

^  Barnes,  Will  C,  "Stock-Watering  Places  on  Western  Grazing  Lands."  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  592,  pp.  2,  3,  1914. 

2  Jardine,  J.  T.,  "Grazing  Sheep  on  Range  Without  Water."  Nat'l  Wool 
Grower,  Vol.  5,  No.  9,  Sept.,  1915. 

*  Jardine,  J.  T.,  and  Hurtt,  L.  C,  "Increased  Cattle  Production  on  South- 
western Ranges."     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  588,  pp.  10,  11,  191 7. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  WATER 


297 


Cattle  will  go  a  long  distance  for  water  on  fairly  level  ground, 
whereas  in  a  rocky  canyon  or  on  a  mountain  side  they  will  not 
travel  so  far.  On  reasonably  level  range,  where  the  watering 
places  are  not  more  than  5  miles  apart,  the  grazing,  as  indicated, 
is  comparatively  uniform;  but,  as  the  distance  between  watering 
places  increases  above  5  miles,  overgrazing  invariably  takes 
place  for  a  considerable  distance  around  the  watering  hole, 
whereas  there  is  lack  of  proper  utilization  farther  away  (Fig.  in). 


I  Forest  Service.) 
Fig.  III.  — forage  HEA\TLY  OVERGRAZED  AND  VEGETATION   DESTROYED   BY 
THE    TRAMPLING    OF    CATTLE    NEAR    A    WATERING    PLACE    ON    A   NEW 
MEXICO  RANGE. 
The  water-supply  stations  are  more  than  s  miles  apart.    Midway  between  the  watering  places  the 
forage  is  only  partly  consumed. 

On  rugged,  hilly  range  good  use  of  the  forage  is  not  obtained  if 
the  stock  have  to  travel  more  than  about  i|  miles  for  water. 
For  the  best  forage  use  it  is  well  to  have  the  watering  places  not 
more  than  a  mile  apart  on  lands  of  irregular  topography. 

Damage  to  the  range  caused  by  the  watering  places  being 
too  far  apart  obviously  reduces  the  grazing  capacity.  It  is  not 
uncommon  on  the  plains  to  see  cattle  that  have  been  forced  to 
go  out  several  miles  for  water  become  so  famished  that  they  drop 
and  die.     If  the  animals  survive  the  inadequate  water  supply, 


298  DEVELOPMENT  OF  WATERING  PLACES 

their  weakened  condition  is  reflected  in  the  retarded  growth  of 
the  young  stock  and  in  the  small,  inferior  calf  crop. 

The  question  of  water  supply  is  a  matter  of  pasture  economics 
which  very  largely  determines  the  value  of  the  forage  crop, 
regardless  of  its  luxuriance  of  growth  and  palatability. 

NATURAL  WATERING  PLACES 

Springs.  —  "  Springs  "  and  "  seeps  "  are  a  means  of  greatly 
increasing  the  supply  of  water  on  range  and  pasture.  The  term 
"  spring  "  is  here  used  to  designate  a  natural  outpour  of  ground 
water  which  finds  its  way  to  the  surface  through  some  crevice 
and  produces  a  fairly  steady  flow.  In  contrast  to  this  the  "  seep  " 
produces  a  small  or  intermittent  flow,  often  forming  merely  a 
wet  place  on  hillside  or  flat. 

It  is  often  possible  to  improve  a  spring  for  the  watering  of 
livestock.  Not  uncommonly  a  spring  may  furnish  a  good  flow 
of  water  early  in  the  season  and  then  "  go  dry."  This  supply 
may  be  made  permanent  by  "  digging  out  "  the  spring.  If  the 
digging  is  continued  to  bedrock,  the  steadiest  and  largest  flow 
is  usually  obtained.  The  various  openings  of  the  spring  should 
be  connected  into  a  single  channel. 

Cement  is  the  best  material  to  use  in  curbing  or  confining 
the  spring.  Wood  will  last  only  a  comparatively  short  time  and 
must  be  renewed  every  few  years.  Properly  selected  rocks,  well 
cemented  together,  last  for  an  indefinite  period.  Such  curbing 
is  invariably  the  cheapest  in  the  long  run.  The  amount  of 
material  needed  for  cement  curbing  is  small,  the  cost  seldom 
being  more  than  that  for  lumber. 

If  the  flow  from  the  spring  is  small,  the  surrounding  earth  is 
often  so  badly  trampled  as  to  decrease  the  flow  materially. 
Accordingly  it  is  always  best  to  protect  the  spring  by  a  sub- 
stantial fence  (Fig.  112).  Moreover,  the  prevention  of  trampling 
by  stock  protects  the  curbing  and  enhances  the  life  of  the  spring. 

Seeps.  —  Here  and  there  over  the  land  area  the  ground  water 
slowly  moves  from  higher  to  lower  levels  and  ultimately  reaches 
some  drainage  outlet.  This  movement  is  known  as  "  seepage." 
A  seep  may  be  improved  in  much  the  same  manner  as  a  spring. 


LOCATION  OF  TROUGHS 


299 


(Forest  Service. ) 

Fig.  112.-  THIS  SPRING  ON  A  SHEEP  RANGE  WAS 
OF  LITTLE  VALUE  IN   ITS  NATURAL  STATE. 

After  it  was  "cleaned  out,"  curbed,  and  fenced,  and  a  trough 
was  provided,  it  furnished  an  abundance  of  clear,  fresh 
water  for  the  band  of  sheep.  The  value  of  the  range  was 
greatly  enhanced  thereby. 


As  the  flow  from  a  seep  is  small,  it  is  necessary  to  dig  out  a  basin 

in  order  to  secure  all 
the  water  which  the 
seep  will  yield.  This 
is  done  by  making 
open  cuts  across  the 
wet  spot,  or  by  "drift- 
ing "  into  the  side  of 
the  hill  where  there 
is  evidence  of  water. 
Although  the  devel- 
opment of  a  seep  is 
considerably  more  a 
matter  of  chance  than 
is  that  of  a  small 
spring,  a  slight  dribble 
of  water  may  often 
be  developed  into  a  fairly  large,  reliable  source  of  supply.  As 
the  flow  is  small,  it  is  necessary  to  accumulate  and  store  the  water. 
Swamps.  —  Swales,  or  more  or  less  swampy  depressions,  may 
often  be  so  developed  as  to  furnish  considerable  water  for  stock. 
The  spring  or  seep  from  which  the  water  flows  is  carefully  cleaned 
out  and  a  channel  cut  across  the  swamp  of  sufl&cient  length  to 
allow  the  flow  to  drain  into  a  pool  or  specially  constructed  reser- 
voir. The  channel  collects  the  water  which  before  was  unavail- 
able to  stock.  The  practical  use  of  swamp  water  in  this  way 
not  only  increases  the  utilization  of  the  forage  but  also  does 
away  with  dangerous  and  annoying  bog  holes. 

Location  of  Troughs.  —  FoUowing  the  improvement  of  a 
spring,  seep,  or  bog,  the  next  step  is  to  trough  the  water.  In 
many  places  the  water  is  piped  for  a  mile  or  more  from  the  spring, 
but  ordinarily  it  is  not  profitable  to  pipe  water  very  great  dis- 
tances. Often  the  trough  is  not  located  farther  from  the  spring 
than  the  length  of  an  ordinary  pipe;  sometimes  it  is  not  more 
than  2  to  3  yards  from  the  source  of  supply. 

It  is  important,  wherever  possible,  to  locate  the  trough  on 
ground  that  has  sufficient  fall  to  carry  off  the  waste  and  surface 


300  DEVELOPMENT   OF  WATERING   PLACES 

water  and  so  afford  an  outlet  for  the  overflow.  Piping  with  a 
diameter  of  i|  to  2  inches  is  best.  No  pipe  less  than  i  inch  in 
diameter  should  be  used,  as  there  is  always  danger  of  its  becoming 
clogged.  If  there  is  more  or  less  travel  over  the  ground,  the 
pipe  should  be  located  underground;  otherwise  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  bury  or  in  any  way  cover  it. 

Kinds  of  Troughs.  —  The  particular  type  and  construction  of 
the  trough  will  be  determined  largely  by  the  character  of  the 
surroundings.  In  deciding  on  the  trough  to  be  constructed  the 
matter  of  permanency  and  cost  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

Log  Troughs.  —  The  troughs  most  commonly  met  with  over 
woodland  ranges  are  hewn  out  of  logs.  The  availability  of  the 
material  and  the  low  cost  of  construction,  as  well  as  the  slight 
need  of  repair  and  the  ease  of  renewal,  account  largely  for  the 
popularity  of  the  log  trough.  The  average  cost  of  log  troughs 
18  to  20  feet  long,  made  from  yellow  pine  or  Douglas  fir,  is  about 
$8.  The  cost  will  vary  according  to  the  skill  and  energy  of  the 
workman,  but  on  the  average  it  will  amount  to  from  20  to  30 
cents  per  cubic  foot  of  opening.  Expense  in  the  construction 
of  log  troughs  may  be  held  down  if  burning  out  the  material  is 
combined  with  the  process  of  hewing  with  the  axe.  Yellow 
pine  is  harder  to  hew  than  some  other  woods,  but  it  burns  out 
well.  Such  materials  as  spruce,  aspen,  yellow  pine,  lodgepole 
pine,  Douglas  fir,  and  grand  fir  are  hewn  into  troughs. 

Other  Wooden  Troughs.  —  Next  to  the  log  trough  the  plank 
trough  is  the  most  common.  This  type  of  trough  is  objection- 
able because  it  is  short-lived  and  is  difficult  to  keep  tight.  Ma- 
terial lighter  than  2-inch  planks  should  never  be  used.  Usu- 
ally plank  troughs  are  rectangular  in  shape,  common  dimensions 
being  12  feet  long,  2  feet  wide,  and  2  feet  deep.  A  trough  of 
this  size,  built  of  2-inch  material  and  properly  supported,  costs 
about  $10. 

Wooden  troughs  should  always  be  thoroughly  painted  both 
inside  and  outside,  as  this  tends  to  prevent  leakage  and  greatly 
increases  the  life  of  the  trough.  Wood  containing  knots  should 
be  avoided  as  far  as  possible.  If  knots  occur,  they  should  be 
heavily  painted  or  tarred,  and  both  sides  should  be  carefully 
covered  with  tin. 


KINDS  OF  TROUGHS  301 

Circular  troughs,  constructed  of  narrow  staves  of  wood  bound 
together  by  steel  rods  are  probably  the  most  common  on  farm 
pastures.  The  steel  rods  or  hoops,  three  or  four  in  number, 
when  properly  spaced,  are  drawn  tightly  about  the  stave  con- 
struction, and  after  a  few  tightenings  the  tank  becomes  im- 
pervious to  water.  These  troughs  are  ordinarily  6  to  14  feet 
in  diameter.  The  chief  objection  to  this  type  of  trough  is  the 
shrinking  of  the  staves  when  the  tank  is  empty. 

Metal,  Cement,  and  Other  Troughs.  —  After  all  is  said  and  done 
the  familiar  metal  trough  is  generally  superior  to  any  other  type. 
Such  a  trough  can  be  purchased  in  almost  any  part  of  the  coun- 
try. Either  it  may  be  received  ready  to  place,  or  it  may  come 
"  knocked  down."  The  most  popular  form  of  metal  trough  is 
half-round  in  shape  and  well  supported  by  heavy  bands,  usually 
with  a  wooden  rim  about  the  top.  Metal  troughs  are  little 
more  expensive  than  the  stave  troughs  of  equal  capacity,  and 
they  last  much  longer. 

If  sand  and  gravel  are  readily  available,  and  the  cost  of  ce- 
ment is  not  excessive,  concrete  is  excellent  material  for  trough 
construction.  Properly  constructed  cement  troughs  are  prac- 
tically indestructible.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  locate  the 
cement  trough  permanently,  as  it  cannot  easily  be  removed  to 
another  locality.  In  the  construction  of  cement  troughs  it  is 
important  that  the  sides  and  bottom,  and  especially  the  corners, 
be  well  reinforced  with  iron  rods  or  heavy  wire  netting.  In 
finishing  the  trough,  the  inner  and  outer  surfaces  should  be 
covered  with  a  very  rich  mixture  of  sand  and  cement  or  of  pure 
cement.  This  is  important  in  order  to  close  small  cracks  and 
seams. 

Troughs  constructed  of  dirt  in  the  form  of  small  reservoirs 
are  wasteful  and  generally  unsatisfactory.  From  the  very 
construction  of  such  troughs  it  is  evident  that  loss  through 
evaporation  and  seepage  is  great.  Moreover,  the  water  is 
always  impure.  As  these  troughs  cannot  well  be  cleaned,  their 
condition  grows  worse  from  year  to  year. 

Trough  Foundation.  —  The  life  of  any  form  of  trough  is 
largely  determined  by  its  foundation.     Cement  or  rock  sup 


302 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  WATERING  PLACES 


ports  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  logs  or  other  materials  that  are 
subject  to  more  or  less  rapid  decay.  It  is  best  to  lay  the  rock 
in  cement.  The  foundation  should  always  be  deep  enough  in 
the  ground  to  avoid  freezing  and  heaving,  and  it  should  be  made 
sufficiently  wide  to  prevent  settling  when  the  site  becomes  satu- 
rated with  water. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  ground  about  the  troughs 
reasonably  dry.  The  trough  should  be  built  fairly  low;  other- 
wise, after  some  use,  the  ground  about  the  trough  is  worn  away 
by  the  animals,  and  the  trough  is  left  so  high  that  only  the 
mature  stock  can  reach  the  water. 

ARTIFICIAL  WATERING  PLACES 

As  the  demand  for  range  increased  and  the  better  natural 
sources  of  water  were  occupied,  "  artificial  "  watering  places 
were  developed.  A  simple  device  of  this  kind  was  that  of  dam- 
ming up  the  water  from  intermittent  streams.  This  plan,  how- 
ever, was  seldom  successful,  as  the  reservoir  formed  was  soon 
filled  with  silt.  Gradually  the  present-day  reservoirs,  now  so 
commonly  seen  on  adobe  fiats  in  the  Southwest,  became  popular. 

Reservoirs.  —  Small  reservoir  sites,  especially  where  adobe 
soil  is  found,  are  not  difficult  to  locate.  Such  reservoirs  are 
usually  not  costly  and  are  to  be  depended  upon  to  supplement 
the  natural  water  supply  to  a  large  extent. 

If  there  is  a  natural  slope  to  the  land,  as  when  it  is  surrounded 
by  hills,  comparatively  little  work  is  required  to  elevate  the 
sides  by  means  of  a  plow  and  scraper.  When  the  sides  and  bot- 
tom are  thoroughly  trampled  and  puddled  the  reservoir  will  hold 
sufficient  water  to  take  care  of  a  large  number  of  stock.  Drain- 
age into  the  reservoir  is  perfected  by  furrows  running  diag- 
onally across  the  slopes,  which  collect  the  rainfall  or  melting 
snow  water  and  transport  it  to  the  storage  reservoir. 

It  is  most  economical  to  locate  a  reservoir  site  along  some 
natural  drainage  basin  or  canyon  where  the  narrowing  channel 
and  a  substantial  earth  dam  will  hold  the  water.  A  reservoir  so 
located  makes  possible  the  storage  of  a  large  amount  of  water. 
The  danger  that  the  dam  may  be  destroyed  by  torrential  floods 


RESERVOIRS  303 

and  the  fact  that  silt  is  liable  ultimately  to  fill  up  the  depression 
are  great  disadvantages  in  the  use  of  this  type  of  reservoir.  To 
avoid  the  accumulating  of  silt  in  the  reservoir  a  second  reservoir, 
smaller  than  the  main  one,  may  be  constructed  above  the  one 
to  be  used  chiefly  for  watering  the  livestock.  All  of  the  water 
drains  into  it;  naturally  the  silt  collects  here;  and  the  water  is 


{Forest  Service.) 
Fig.  113.  — an  EARTH  RESERVOIR  IN  NORTHERN  ARIZONA  BUILT  TO  COLLECT 
AND   CONSERVE  FLOOD   WATER  FOR  WATERING   SHEEP. 

left  reasonably  clear  as  it  reaches  the  second  or  main  reservoir. 

A  heavy  clay  or  adobe  soil  is  the  best  type  for  the  construction 
of  reservoirs.  The  passing  of  horses  to  and  fro  as  the  reservoir 
is  being  built  does  much  to  settle  the  banks.  The  best  way  to 
make  the  bottom  and  sides  impervious  to  water  is  to  place  salt 
in  the  reservoir  so  that  the  grazing  animals  will  do  the  packing 
themselves.  This  plan,  as  shown  in  Figure  113,  is  effective 
where  the  soil  contains  suflScient  moisture  to  cause  it  to  puddle. 

The  cost  of  building  a  reservoir  is  seldom  high  if  the  additional 
forage  made  available  and  the  benefits  derived  by  the  stock  are 
considered.  The  cost  will  be  determined  largely  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil  and  the  way  it  can  be  handled.     Barnes  ^  has 

1  Barnes,  Will  C,  "Stock-Watering  Places  on  Western  Grazing  Lands."  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.  Fanners  Bui.  592,  p.  15,  1914. 


304  DEVELOPMENT  OF  WATERING  PLACES 

shown  that  the  average  cost  of  eight  reservoirs  on  the  Lincoln 
National  Forest,  with  an  average  capacity  of  1,250,000  gallons, 
was  $506;  of  six  reservoirs  on  the  Prescott  Forest,  with  an  aver- 
age capacity  of  216,000  gallons,  was  $183;  and  of  seven  reservoirs 
on  the  Tusayan  National  Forest,  with  an  average  capacity  of 
473,000  gallons,  was  $247. 

Wells.  —  The  essential  features  of  a  good  well  are  an  ample 
supply  of  clear  pure  water,  a  location  which  renders  it  reason- 
ably free  from  impurities,  and  a  casing  or  curbing  which  is  proof 
against  vermin. 

Throughout  the  arid  West  comparatively  few  places  are  found 
where  well  water  may  be  obtained  at  moderate  depth.  Most 
wells  in  the  drier  regions  must  be  drilled.  The  best-known 
region  where  livestock  is  watered  by  means  of  deep  wells  is  in 
the  Panhandle  of  Texas.  Here  water  of  unlimited  quantity  is 
found  at  depths  varying  from  150  to  300  feet.  The  cost  of  such 
wells  is  from  $350  to  $500.  To  this  must  be  added  the  cost  of  a 
steel  or  wooden  windmill,  with  pipe,  cylinder,  and  other  necessi- 
ties, which  is  $150  to  $300;  or,  if  the  windmill  is  not  used,  the 
cost  of  a  gasoline  engine.  Wells  so  equipped  may  be  relied  upon 
to  furnish  water  for  350  to  500  cattle  throughout  the  season. 
On  the  better  improved  ranges  of  the  Panhandle  region  a  well 
is  located  at  approximately  the  center  of  every  four  sections, 
and  the  animals  are  not  obliged  to  travel  more  than  2  miles  in 
any  direction  for  water,  a  very  satisfactory  distance  both  for 
stock  and  pasture. 

Neariy  the  entire  western  portion  of  Texas  is  underlaid  by  artesian  waters 
ranging  from  150  to  1,500  feet  below  the  surface.  Wherever  the  drainage 
slopes  are  not  too  precipito  us,  artificial  tanks  may  be  formed  across  the  draws 
by  building  dams,  and  if  the  bottom  of  the  tank  is  carried  down  to  hardpan, 
or  is  puddled  before  being  filled,  a  supply  sufficient  to  last  through  the  dry 
season  may  be  secured  at  small  expense.  Such  tanks  or  wells,  either  artesian 
or  where  the  water  is  lifted  by  windmill  pumps,  should  be  provided  at  least 
every  4  miles  over  the  range,  so  that  cattle  will  never  have  to  travel  more 
than  a  couple  of  mUes  to  water.  Where  the  wells,  waterholes,  or  tanks  are 
8,  10,  or  more  miles  apart,  as  they  very  frequently  are  on  some  of  the  western 
ranges,  cattle  greatly  overstock  the  range  in  the  vicinity  of  the  water,  espe- 


QUESTIONS  305 

dally  during  midsummer,  while  the  back  country  is  thickly  covered  with 
good  feed.i 

In  most  localities  long  periods  of  calm  are  likely  to  occur 
during  which  the  storage  supply  of  water  lifted  by  windmill 
power  is  exhausted.  For  that  reason  gasoline  or  oil  engines  are 
growing  in  popularity,  especially  as  supplementary  to  the  wind- 
mill. For  emergency  purposes  the  engines  are  so  mounted 
that  they  can  be  readily  moved  from  one  well  to  another. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  availability  of  water  on  range  lands  in  the  far  West  and  its 
relation  to  forage  utilization. 

2.  (a)  What  are  the  daUy  water  requirements  of  cattle  and  horses  during 
warm  weather  when  cropping  (i)  dry  forage  and  (2)  green  feed?  (b)  What 
are  the  water  requirements  of  sheep? 

3.  (a)  How  far  may  cattle  travel  to  water  and  secure  good  utilization  of 
the  forage  (i)  on  plains  and  mesa  range,  and  (2)  on  rugged,  hilly  range? 
(b)  Discuss  the  effects  on  both  range  and  stock  where  the  watering  places 
are  several  mUes  apart. 

4.  (a)  How  may  springs  be  made  to  furnish  a  maximum  water  supply? 
(b)  Discuss  curbing  and  fencing  springs. 

5.  Discuss  stock-water  improvement  by  the  conservation  of  water  from 
seeps  and  swamps. 

6.  (a)  How  far  is  spring  or  seep  water  usually  piped?  {b)  Discuss  the 
location  of  water  troughs,  (c)  What  diameter  of  pipe  is  recommended  for 
conducting  the  water  from  spring  to  trough? 

7.  Discuss  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  in  the  construction  and  use  of 
(i)  log  troughs,  (2)  plank  troughs,  (3)  circular  wooden-stave  troughs,  (4)  metal 
and  cement  troughs. 

8.  (a)  What  form  of  foundation  is  recommended  for  troughs?  (b)  In  the 
location  of  a  trough  what  factors  should  be  kept  in  mind? 

9.  (a)  Discuss  the  value  of  reservoirs  as  a  means  of  increasing  stock- 
watering  places,  (b)  Where  and  under  what  conditions  of  soil  and  topog- 
raphy is  it  most  feasible  to  locate  a  reservoir  site?  (c)  How  may  "silting 
in"  of  an  efficient  reservoir  be  avoided? 

10.  What  are  the  essential  features  of  a  good  well? 

11.  (a)  To  what  extent  is  the  construction  of  wells  practicable  in  the  arid 
West?  {b)  What  is  the  usual  cost  in  Texas  of  an  average  efficient  well,  com- 
plete with  windmill  or  gasoline  engine  and  other  essentials? 

1  Smith,  J.  G.,  "Grazing  Problems  in  the  Southwest  and  How  to  Meet  Them." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Agrost.,  Bui.  16,  p.  26,  1899. 


3o6  DEVELOPMENT  OF  WATERING   PLACES 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Barnes,  Will  C.     Stock-Watering   Places   on    Western    Grazing  Lands. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  592,  1914. 
CoviLLE,  Frederick  V.    A  Report  on  Systems  of  Leasing  Large  Areas  of 

Grazing  Lands.     U.  S.  Public  Lands  Commission,  Report,  1905. 
FoRSLiNG,  Clarence  L.     Chopped  Soapweed  as  Emergency  Feed  for  Cattle 

on  Southwestern  Ranges.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  745,  1919. 
Jardine,  James  T.     Grazing  Sheep  on  Range  Without  Water.     Nat'l 

Wool  Grower,  Vol.  5,  No.  9,  1915. 
Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Forsling,   Clarence  L.     Range  and  Cattle 

Management  During  Drought.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  103 1, 

1922. 
Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Hurtt,  Leon  C.     Increased  Cattle  Production  on 

Southwestern  Ranges.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  588,  191 7. 
Potter,  Albert  F.     Questions  Regarding  the  Public  Grazing  Lands  of  the 

Western  United  States.     U.  S.  Public  Lands  Commission,  Report. 

1905. 
Smith,  J.  G.     Grazing  Problems  in  the  Southwest  and  How  to  Meet  Them. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Agrost.,  Bui.  16,  1899. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

FORAGE  ESTIMATES  AS  A  BASIS  FOR  THE  RATIONAL 

USE   OF   GRAZING   RESOURCES    (GRAZING 

RECONNAISSANCE) 

According  to  a  well-established  principle  in  economics,  the 
larger  pastures,  farms,  and  ranges  yield  greater  returns  per  acre, 
other  things  being  equal,  than  do  the  smaller  holdings.  The 
discussion  of  the  question  of  profits  being  reserved  for  another 
place,  it  may  be  stated  that  many  instances  could  be  cited 
in  which  profits  on  the  larger  holdings  are  not  commensurate 
with  those  realized  by  the  smaller  operator. 

Some  such  reversals  in  the  profits  may  be  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  the  resources  of  the  larger  livestock  concerns  are 
frequently  not  utilized  to  the  best  advantage.  Not  uncommonly 
the  owner  or  manager  of  a  pasture  does  not  recognize  its  true 
value  or  understand  how  to  administer  it.  The  high  cost  of 
feed  and  labor  now  as  compared  with  the  cost  in  the  early  history 
of  the  hvestock  industry  has  tended  to  narrow  the  margin  of 
profit  in  Hvestock  production  to  a  point  where,  for  the  industry 
to  be  really  successful,  the  most  approved  principles  of  business 
and  of  scientific  management  must  be  applied.  To  do  this  the 
forage-producing  capacity  of  the  lands  must  be  known,  and  the 
problems  pertinent  to  their  most  economical  use  must  be  recog- 
nized and  solved.  While  one  still  occasionally  hears  the  state- 
ment, "  I  am  only  a  stockman,"  stock  breeders  and  farmers  are 
generally  willing  to  adopt  improved  methods  in  the  handling 
of  their  stock  and  lands. 

GRAZING  RECONNAISSANCE 

The  introduction  of  improved  methods  of  harvesting  the 
forage  crop  as  well  as  of  handling  the  stock  grazed  presupposes 
a  careful  study  of  all  the  more  important  factors  that  influence 
forage  growth  and  economic  livestock  production.     On  small 

307 


3o8  FORAGE   ESTIMATES 

ranges  or  pastures,  say  not  to  exceed  a  few  hundred  acres,  the 
outstanding  grazing  problems  can  usually  be  solved  without 
adopting  a  systematized  plan  of  compiling  the  various  factors 
that  influence  the  best  management  and  utilization  of  the  re- 
sources. On  large  holdings,  however,  especially  where  the  sur- 
face is  rugged  and  the  soil  type  variable,  systematic  examination 
and  permanent  record-taking  are  invaluable.  A  systematized 
study,  designed  to  secure  the  data  that  will  lead  to  permanent 
improvement  in  management  and  to  increased  profits  from  the 
lands,  is  known  as  "  grazing  reconnaissance." 

Object  of  Grazing  Reconnaissance.  —  Grazing  reconnaissance 
aims  to  secure  all  the  facts  essential  to  the  highest  possible  use 
of  the  grazing  resources.  Indeed,  it  has  been  said  that  grazing 
reconnaissance  is  a  mere  stocktaking  of  the  forage  resources. 
Although  one  of  the  chief  aims  is  to  record  the  character,  extent, 
and  accessibility  of  the  various  forage  types,  grazing  reconnais- 
sance goes  much  farther  than  that.  It  shows  not  only  what  the 
resources  are  and  where  they  are,  but  what  their  true  value  is 
and  how  they  may  be  best  utilized  and  improved.  For  instance, 
any  overgrazed  or  underutilized  parts  of  a  range  are  definitely 
located,  and  on  the  basis  of  the  data  secured  effective  methods 
can  usually  be  proposed  to  remedy  various  evils  resulting  from 
bad  livestock  management.  Certain  areas,  however,  may  re- 
quire special  attention  or  investigation  by  experts  before  they 
can  be  appreciably  improved. 

The  problems  a  grazing  reconnaissance  seeks  to  clarify  require 
careful  observations  as  to  the  topographic  features,  climatic 
conditions,  need  for  watershed  protection,  character  and  abun- 
dance of  forage,  watering  facilities,  and  certain  other  factors. 
In  addition,  the  completed  reconnaissance  classifies  the  lands 
into  grazing  types  and  shows  the  forage  value  of  each.  Thus  on 
wooded  ranges  a  combined  grazing  and  timber  reconnaissance 
affords  a  basis  for  a  working  plan  embracing  all  management 
activities.  Broadly  speaking,  grazing  reconnaissance  may  be 
intensive  or  extensive.  The  facts  gathered  may  be  recorded  in 
various  ways,  the  aim  being  to  obtain  and  compile  an  inventory, 
as  it  were,  of  the  grazing  assets  and  liabilities. 


fflSTORY  OF  GRAZING   RECONNAISSANCE  309 

History  of  Grazing  Reconnaissance.  —  In  practical  livestock 
production  there  is  a  limit  to  the  extent  to  which  the  details  of 
range  and  pasture  management  may  be  trusted  to  memory. 
There  is  also  a  limit  to  the  accuracy  of  individual  judgment, 
even  when  based  on  experience,  if  it  is  unsupported  by  actual 
facts.  This  is  seen  to  be  all  tne  more  true  if  one  takes  into 
account  the  ever-changing  personnel  in  the  handling  both  of 
private  and  public  pasture  lands. 

A  western  ranchman,  who  had  enjoyed  more  than  average 
success,  once  told  the  author  that  the  wealth  he  had  accumu- 
lated through  livestock  production  was  very  largely  attributable 
to  the  attention  he  gave  to  details.  Although  his  pastures  were 
extensive,  embracing  several  thousand  acres,  and  located  on  a 
level  stretch  of  country,  he  had  made  so  intensive  a  study  of  the 
tract  as  to  know  with  considerable  precision  where  the  various 
forage  types  were  located,  their  approximate  size,  their  forage 
value  and  grazing  capacity,  what  areas  were  in  need  of  reseeding, 
what  parts  had  to  be  grazed  early  in  the  season  because  of  lack 
of  water  later  on,  the  number  of  stock  the  pasture  would  sup- 
port indefinitely,  and  other  pertinent  facts.  In  other  words,  he 
knew  fairly  well  what  his  forage  resources  were  and  how  to  utilize 
the  feed  to  the  best  advantage. 

Practically  the  only  objection  to  this  plan  was  that  the  old 
gentleman  carried  this  valuable  information  in  his  memory.  If 
the  facts  studied  so  painstakingly  had  been  placed  on  a  map  or 
kept  in  some  tangible  and  accessible  form,  his  son  also,  who  was 
then  in  college,  and  who  soon  became  heir  to  the  ranch,  could 
have  profitably  utilized  the  detailed  information  gathered  by 
his  deceased  father.  Not  only  is  it  convenient  in  formulating 
future  management  plans,  but  it  is  also  advantageous  from  a 
purely  business  viewpoint,  unless  the  holdings  are  small,  to  have 
at  hand  a  rough  sketch  at  least  of  all  pasture  and  range  lands,  and, 
indeed,  of  the  lands  under  tillage. 

Up  to  the  time  of  writing  (1922)  the  most  extensive  and  system- 
atic effort  that  has  been  made  to  secure  and  apply  data  pertaining 
to  the  resources  which  the  land  affords  has  been  bestowed  upon 
the  National  Forests.     The  average  size  of  the  National  Forests 


3IO  FORAGE   ESTIMATES 

(about  1.000,000  acres)  is  so  great,  and  the  surface  and  plant 
types  are  so  varied,  that  no  person  can  form  a  mental  picture 
in  sufficient  detail  of  any  one  National  Forest  as  a  whole  to  serve 
in  the  judicious  administration  of  either  its  grazing  or  timber 
crops.  Having  recognized  the  value  of  a  systematic  compilation 
of  the  forest  resources,  foresters  are  also  fully  in  agreement  with 
the  truism  that  without  such  compilations  "  one  cannot  see  the 
forest  for  the  trees."  It  has  been  shown  that  when  the  National 
Forests  were  created  the  greater  part  of  the  lands  was  grazed 
annually  with  no  regulation  of  the  cropping.  Almost  every- 
where on  the  heavily  grazed  Forest  ranges  there  were  glaring 
and  sad  examples  of  the  ill  effects  of  "  free  "  range.  It  was  clear 
that  in  order  to  protect  these  vast  public  interests  it  was  neces- 
sary to  control  the  grazing.  The  adoption  of  a  controlling 
measure  has  resulted  beneficially  in  the  protection  and  further 
development  of  the  hvestock  industry  on  lands  adjacent  to  the 
Forests  as  well  as  on  the  National  Forest  lands  themselves. 

When  the  administration  of  the  National  Forests  was  first 
undertaken  by  the  Federal  Government  it  was  possible  to  correct 
only  the  more  glaring  misuses  of  the  range  and  other  Forest 
resources.  As  time  went  on,  however,  the  desire  for  the  better 
protection  and  conservation  of  the  products  of  the  Forests  on 
the  part  of  the  Government  and  the  increased  demand  for  a 
share  in  the  use  of  the  choice  summer  range  on  the  part  of  the 
stockmen,  led  to  a  greatly  refined  and  improved  management 
of  the  range.  It  was,  of  course,  essential,  both  in  the  interest 
of  the  livestock  industry  and  of  the  Forests  themselves,  that  the 
grazing  lands  should  be  used  to  the  best  advantage  possible. 
The  only  way  this  could  be  accomplished  without  seriously  cur- 
taihng  the  grazing  was  to  develop  and  apply  better  methods  of 
handling  both  the  stock  and  the  range.  In  later  years  this  has 
been  greatly  assisted  by  grazing  reconnaissance. 

The  first  serious  attempt  to  develop  methods  in  grazing  recon- 
naissance and  to  organize  a  party  to  record  data  pertaining  to 
the  improvement  of  range  management,  was  in  191 1  when  the 
study  was  initiated  on  the  Coconino  National  Forest  in  northern 
Arizona.     The  original  grazing  reconnaissance  plans  were  de- 


DATA  OBTAINED   BY  GRAZING   RECONNAISSANCE         311 

veloped  and  the  first  party  organized  by  James  T.  Jardine,  then 
a  member  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service.  Although  the 
methods  of  securing,  recording,  and  summarizing  the  results 
have  passed  through  a  period  of  evolutionary  development, 
those  methods  and  the  plans  subsequently  proposed  by  Jardine 
form  the  basis  for  the  grazing  reconnaissance  work  pursued  by 
the  Forest  Service  today.  Before  that  time  numerous  timber- 
reconnaissance  parties  had  been  organized.  The  valuable  results 
obtained  by  the  mapping  of  the  timberlands  helped  to  ex- 
pedite the  development  of  similar  work  along  grazing  Hues. 

Data  and  Facts  Obtained  by  Grazing  Reconnaissance.  —  In 
the  administration  of  the  National  Forest  ranges,  as  in  the  most 
economical  management  of  the  larger  privately  owned  pasture 
units,  there  are  certain  primary  and  perplexing  problems  which 
commonly  present  themselves.  In  the  interest  of  the  main- 
tenance and  improvement  of  the  timber,  the  forage,  and,  indeed, 
the  watershed,  the  major  questions  which  reconnaissance  aims 
to  clarify  are:  (i)  Adaptabihty  of  the  range  unit  to  the  class  of 
stock  grazed;  (2)  number  and  distribution  of  stock  grazed; 
(3)  the  opening  date  and  the  length  of  the  grazing  season. 

The  deciding  factors  in  determining  the  adaptabihty  of  the 
range  unit  to  the  different  classes  of  stock  are:  (a)  Abundance 
and  condition  of  timber  reproduction  and  immediate  need  there- 
for; (b)  watershed  protection;  (c)  topography  and  climate; 
(d)  character  and  abundance  of  forage;  (e)  watering  faciHties; 
(/)  accessibility  of  the  unit  to  the  different  classes  of  stock. 

The  number  and  distribution  of  stock  will  be  based  upon 
(a)  character  and  density  of  the  vegetation  and  its  palatabiHty 
and  accessibility  to  the  different  classes  of  stock;  (b)  climatic 
conditions  —  total  annual  precipitation  and  its  seasonal  distribu- 
tion, the  length  of  the  grazing  period  and  the  period  that  the  for- 
age is  available  for  grazing,  and  the  variation  in  forage  production 
from  one  year  to  another;  (c)  obstacles  to  the  proper  distribution 
of  the  stock,  as,  for  instance,  barriers  and  streams;  (d)  watering 
places  and  possibiUties  of  increasing  the  water  supply;  (e)  need 
of  protection  of  the  range  in  the  interest  of  timber  reproduction 
and  of  the  forage  crop. 


312  FORAGE   ESTIMATES 

The  opening  date  and  the  length  of  the  grazixig  period  will  be 
determined  largely  by  (a)  climate  and  elevation,  especially  as 
related  to  the  acreage  and  the  productivity  of  the  spring,  summer, 
and  winter  range;  (b)  need  for  revegetation  and  the  maintenance 
of  the  more  valuable  forage  cover;  (c)  permanency  and  abun- 
dance of  the  watering  facilities  and  type  of  forage. 

To  be  in  a  position  to  apply  the  important  facts  to  the  man- 
agement of  the  lands  it  is  first  necessary  to  record  the  data  in 
tangible  form.  The  object  here  is  to  show  how  the  data  neces- 
sary to  the  determination  of  the  questions  outlined  may  be  col- 
lected and  arranged  for  ready  use.  A  complete  reconnaissance 
will  comprise  the  following  parts : 

I.  A  topographic  map,  including  all  the  more  important 
features  pertinent  to  the  management  of  the  lands  as  grazing 
areas,  such  as  the  location  of  drainage  and  all  stock-watering 
places,  ridges,  elevations  (usually  by  loo-foot  contour  intervals), 
as  well  as  all  the  more  important  cultural  features,  such  as  roads 
and  trails,  telephone  lines,  fences,  and  cabins. 

II.  A  classification  of  the  lands  into  grazing  types, ^  lo  acres 
or  larger  in  area,  except  conspicuous  landmarks  or  small  meadows 
of  high  grazing  capacity  exceeding  2  acres  in  area.  Of  these,  ten 
types  are  recognized  as  follows :  ^ 

1.  Open  grasslands  (other  than  meadow).  This  includes 
bunchgrass  areas,  gramagrass  lands,  and  other  grass  cover  not 
meadow  in  character  (Fig.  114). 

2.  Meadows.  This  cover  embraces  both  the  dry  and  the  wet 
meadowlands  where  sedges  and  rushes  and  species  like  tufted 
hairgrass  (Air a  caespitosa)  predominate,  as  well  as  moist  meadow- 
like areas  which  occur  commonly  as  glades  in  the  timber  type 
(Fig.  115). 

3.  Weeds.     This  tjrpe  includes  all  untimbered  areas  where 

'  A  grazing  type  as  used  in  reconnaissance  consists  of  an  area  upon  which  the 
cover  may  be  composed  of  one  class  of  vegetation,  as,  for  instance,  a  grass  cover; 
or  of  two  or  more  classes  of  vegetation,  as  grass  and  sagebrush,  the  more  conspicuous 
of  which  determines  the  type  designation.  Subtypes  within  the  major  unit  are 
used  to  designate  the  identity  of  a  mixed  cover. 

^  In  order  to  avoid  complications  in  field  work  only  the  broader  types  are  recog- 
nized. 


Fig.  114.  — open   GRASSLAND,  NOT  MEADOW  IN   CHARACTER    (TYPE   i). 
The  cover  is  composed  of  small  wheatgrass  {Axropyron  dasyslachyum)  and  is  best  suited  to  the  graz- 
ing of  cattle  and  horses. 


{Forest  Service.) 

Fig    IIS  -MEADOW  TYPE  (TYPE  2)  IN  THE  FOREGROUND,  WITH  WASTE  RANGE 

DUE  TO   DOWN  TIMBER   (TYPE   7)    IN  THE   BACKGROUND. 

The  sheep  are  grazing  openly  and  with  contentment. 


KiG.  no. —  WEED  TYPE  (TYPE  3).  WITH  ISLL  E  luXGUA  E  iJ'cn 
(Achillea)   PREDOMINATING. 
This  cover  is  most  efficiently  utilized  by  sheep. 


AND  YARROW 


(Forest  Service.) 

Fig.  117.  — sage  TYPE  (TYPE  4)  IN  FOREGROUND  AND  ASPEN  TYPE   (TITE  10) 
IN   BACKGROUND. 

The  aspen  is  a  very  valuable  timber  cover  because  of  the  Rrazing  afforded  by  the  luxuriant  under- 
story  of  palatable,  succulent  plants. 

314 


DATA  OBTAINED   BY   GRAZING   RECONNAISSANCE 


315 


plants  popularly  known  as  ''  weeds,"  that  is,  broad-leaved  herbs, 
predominate  (Fig.  116). 

4.  Sagebrush.     Lands   where   sagebrush   predominates    (Fig. 

117)- 

5.  Browse.     This  type  includes  all  lands  outside  of  coniferous 
timber  where  browse  plants  (brush)  prevail  (Fig.  118) 


.*r?'^: 


BROWSE  TYPE,   DESIGNA 1 LU   .V.    i  i  PE  s,  CONSISTING  OF  MOUNTAIN 
ELDER    {Sambucus). 
Aspen  type  (Type  lo)  is  seen  in  the  background. 


6.  Timbered  areas.  This  cover  supports  a  stand  of  grass, 
weeds,  and  browse.  It  includes  all  range  in  coniferous  timber 
(Fig.  119). 

7.  Waste  lands.  This  type  includes  all  timbered,  brush,  and 
other  lands  that  have  no  grazing  value  on  account  of  their  in- 
accessibility (Fig.  119). 

8.  Barren  lands.  All  areas  potentially  incapable  of  producing 
the  higher  (flowering)  type  of  vegetation  are  classed  as  barren 
(Fig.  119). 


Fig.  iiQ.  —  a  timbered  RANGE  (TYPE  6)  IS  SEEN  IN  THE  FOREGROUND.     IN  THE 

IMMEDIATE    BACKGROUND    WASTE  OR    INACCESSIBLE   RANGE  (TYPE  7)  IS  SEEN. 

In  the  extreme  background  the  land  is  not  capable  of  supporting  vegetation  of  value  as  forage  and 

hence  is  classed  as  "barren."    It  is  designated  as  Type  8. 


Fig.  120.  —  WOODLAND   COMPOSED  OF  JUNIPER  AND   PINON   PINE,   DESIGNATED 

AS  TYPE  9. 
This  type  is  characterized  by  the  absence  of  aspen  and  the  larger  coniferous  trees.    The  juniper- 

pinon  type  generally  receives  a  small  annual  precipitation  and  is  low  in  grazing  capacity. 
316 


DATA  OBTAINED   BY  GRAZING  RECONNAISSANCE 


317 


9.  Woodland  —  Juniper  and  pinon.  A  cover  so  designated 
supports  a  variety  of  vegetation  composed  of  grasses,  weeds,  and 
browse  in  which  trees  other  than  aspen  and  large  conifers  pre- 
dominate (Fig.  120). 

10.  Aspen.  This  type  embraces  grasses,  weeds,  and  browse, 
or  a  cover  of  any  one  of  these,  in  a  true  aspen  type  (Fig.  121). 


Fig.  121.  — the    TRUE    ASPEN    TYPE     (TYPE    lo),   WITH    THE    CHARACTERISTIC 
UNDERGROWTH  OF   GRASSES,   BROAD-LEAVED   HERBS,   AND   BROWSE. 


Obviously  various  combinations  of  vegetation  that  make  up 
the  cover  are  not  strictly  included  in  the  ten  types  enumerated. 
For  this  reason  subtypes  are  recognized.  In  such  instances  the 
initial  letter  of  the  Latin  or  common  name  of  the  predominating 
species  is  recorded  as  the  type  proper  is  mapped. 

The  ten  types  are  represented  on  the  final  maps  by  colors  and 
symbols;  but,  owing  to  the  inconvenience  of  carrying  crayons  in 
the  field,  numbers  from  i  to  10,  syrabolic  of  the  type  colors,  are 
employed  to  designate  the  types  noted  in  the  field  mapping.  The 
colors  and  symbols  used  for  the  types  above  enumerated  are 
(i)   yellow,    (2)    orange,    (3)    red,    (4)    olive-drab,    (5)    brown, 


3l8  FORAGE  ESTIMATES 

(6)  green,  {j)  ultramarine,  (8)  small  imperfect  triangles,  (9)  pale 
green,  (10)  pink. 

In  addition  to  the  type  designations,  features  relating  to  the 
condition  of  the  range  as  affected  by  grazing  are  also  indicated. 
These  data,  as  will  be  shown  later,  are  included  on  a  separate 
map  with  the  topographic  and  cultural  features.  Normally 
grazed  areas,  for  instance,  are  represented  in  solid  color;  over- 
grazed areas  by  horizontal  hatching  in  type  color;  and  poorly 
stocked  areas  by  vertical  hatching  also  in  type  color. 

III.  The  complete  ground  cover  showing  forage  species,  the 
percentage  of  surface  supporting  vegetation,  the  density  of  the 
ground  cover,  the  percentage  of  "  weeds,"  grasses,  and  shrubs,^ 
and  the  palatability  of  the  cover  as  a  whole.  From  these  data, 
as  will  be  shown  later,  the  grazing  capacity  of  the  range  is  derived. 

IV.  A  descriptive  report  of  each  type  (including  data  which 
can  not  be  shown  on  the  map),  such  as  the  adaptability  of  the 
area  to  the  different  classes  of  stock,  the  soil  and  climatic  condi- 
tions, the  carrying  capacity  of  the  various  types,  the  proper 
grazing  season,  the  degree  of  utilization,  and  other  factors  perti- 
nent to  the  management  of  the  lands  as  pasture  areas. 

V.  A  map  of  the  timber  showing  its  types  and  giving  an  esti- 
mate of  the  yield,  if  a  timber  reconnaissance  is  made  in  connec- 
tion with  the  typing  of  the  forage  resources. 

VI.  A  plant  collection,  with  economic  notes  of  each  species 
showing  its  value  as  forage  or  its  undesirable  qualities. 

Methods  Employed  in  Obtaining  the  Data :  Field  Work.  — 
Three  methods  are  used  in  obtaining  reconnaissance  field  data  — 
(i)  the  "  gridiron  "  method,  (2)  the  traverse-sketching  method, 
and  (3)  the  triangulation  method.  Numerous  variations  of 
these  are  in  use,  depending  on  the  topographic  and  other  features; 
but  the  three  methods  mentioned  nevertheless  form  the  basis 
of  all  field  mapping. 

The  gridiron  method  provides  that  each  man  work  separately. 
Where  the  work  is  done  systematically,  with  a  view  to  reaching 

'  Some,  in  estimating,  include  both  the  percentage  of  surface  supporting  vegeta- 
tion and  the  density  under  one  factor  —  density.  There  may  be  less  chance  for 
personal  error  if  the  estimate  of  the  density  factor  alone  is  taken  into  account. 
Certainly  the  combining  of  the  two  factors  under  density  alone  simplifies  the  com- 
piling of  the  data. 


OBTAINING  THE   DATA  —  FIELD   WORK  319 

a  degree  of  accuracy  consistent  with  a  reasonably  close  utilization 
of  the  forage  crop,  the  mapper  may  pace  through  each  section 
either  on  foot  or  on  horseback  (usually  on  foot) ;  or,  if  the  topog- 
raphy is  rugged,  he  may  ascend  points  from  which  the  types 
may  be  readily  sketched  in.  In  the  first  instance,  the  worker 
passes  through  each  section  twice  at  a  distance  not  greater  than 
half  a  mile  apart,  collecting  the  data  as  he  goes  and  checking  his 
pacing  on  surveyed  lines  if  these  are  available. 

In  surveyed  country  the  examiner  starts  from  an  established 
Land  Office  corner,  keeping  his  position  located  either  on  a  2-  or  a 
4-inch-scale  map.  (The  U.  S.  Forest  Service  provides  a  special 
form  for  this  purpose.)  The  sketching  consists  in  recording  the 
topography,  types^  and  cultural  features.  In  addition,  the 
density  of  the  ground  cover  and  certain  other  factors  are  noted 
on  the  special  form  used,  and  these  data  are  subsequently  dis- 
cussed in  the  descriptive  report.  Elevations  are  recorded  by 
means  of  an  aneroid  barometer. 

In  unsurveyed  country  traverse  fines  are  run  in  cardinal 
directions  from  a  station  which  is  permanently  monumented,  so 
that  the  station  may  be  tied  in  and  the  traverses  adjusted  to 
later  surveys.  Along  the  traverse  fines,  stakes  may  be  set  at 
intervals  of  half  a  mile,  these  distances  being  carefully  measured. 
For  convenience  the  stakes  are  numbered  and  may  carry  the 
elevation  where  located.  The  traverse  lines  being  established, 
the  examiner  starts  from  stakes  one  mfie  apart  and  records  the 
data  in  the  manner  described  for  the  use  of  the  gridiron  method 
in  surveyed  country.^ 

The  traverse-sketching  method  is  based  upon  traverse  fines  so 
located  as  to  permit  the  examiner  to  sketch  in  the  country  on 
each  side  of  the  fine.  Traverse  lines  may  be  estabfished  in 
rugged  localities  by  means  of  compass  and  chain  or  by  stadia, 
the  method  depending  upon  the  topography  and  the  character 
of  the  vegetation.  These  traverse  lines  may  be  located  along 
the  main  streams,  roads,  ridges,  and  trails.  These  data  being 
available,  the  examiner  proceeds  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of 

1  In  the  absence  of  Land  Office  corners,  traverse  lines  are  extended  along  ridges, 
creeks,  and  trails  in  the  manner  described,  except  that  the  traverse  must  be  plotted 
and  sectionized. 


320  FORAGE   ESTIMATES 

the  gridiron  method.  Elevations  are  recorded  by  means  of  the 
aneroid  barometer  or  by  stadia  calculations. 

The  traverse-sketching  method  is  not  popular  because  the 
sketching  is  not  very  accurate.  It  is,  however,  rapid  and  inex- 
pensive and  serves  the  purposes  of  the  ordinary  grazing  recon- 
naissance, except,  possibly,  where  the  forage  crop  is  to  be  used 
much  more  intensively  than  on  most  range  lands  of  average 
productivity.  If  an  accurate  topographic  map  is  desired,  the 
telescopic  alidade  is  substituted  for  the  compass;  the  stadia 
takes  the  place  of  the  chain;  and  instead  of  the  4-inch  section 
plat  the  regulation  planetable  is  used. 

The  triangulation  method  is  best  adapted  to  rugged  mountain 
lands  relatively  free  from  vegetation  that  obstructs  the  line  of 
sight.  The  map  work  is  based  upon  primary  stations,  secondary 
stations,  and  topographic  sketch  points.  The  primary  triangu- 
lation stations  are  located  by  means  of  transit  or  theodolite;  the 
secondary  control  points,  either  by  planetable  or  telescopic 
alidade;  and  the  sketch  points,  by  the  topographic  Abney  level 
and  the  open-sight  alidade.  Vertical  control  is  computed  by 
means  of  vertical  angles;  horizontal  control,  by  horizontal 
angles.  When  the  sketch  points  are  located  and  their  elevations 
determined,  the  topographic  and  cultural  features  are  sketched. 
Then  one  is  prepared  to  proceed  with  the  typing. 

The  accuracy  of  the  topographic  map  obtained  by  triangu- 
lation makes  it  possible  to  sketch  in  with  reasonable  exactness  the 
type  boundary  Hnes.  When  the  type  boundary  lines  are  located, 
the  examiner  proceeds  to  record  for  each  type  such  data  as  are 
pertinent  to  its  use  as  forage. 

Office  Work.  —  In  order  to  insure  accuracy  in  transcribing  the 
field-map  data  the  camp  is  provided  with  the  necessary  equip- 
ment of  a  draftsman.  All  the  field  notes  are  transcribed  in  uni- 
form and  workable  order  on  township  plats,  with  a  scale  of  4 
inches  to  the  mile,  or  on  a  camp  map  with  a  scale  of  2  inches  to 
the  mile,  the  types  being  shown  in  colors.  The  forage  acres  ^  in 
each  type  and  each  unit  are  then  calculated  and  tabulated.  The 
final  compilations  are  done  in  regularly  established  offices  where 
it  is  possible  to  record  the  data  in  finished  form.  For  ofiice  use 
'  For  definition  of  "forage  acre"  see  p.  325. 


GRAZING  AND   TIMBER   RECONNAISSANCE   COMPARED      32 1 

the  map  may  be  drawn  on  a  scale  of  2  or  4  inches  to  the  mile. 
Among  other  things  the  map  aims  to  exhibit  the  following: 

1.  Total  range  area. 

2.  Natural  subdivisions  of  each  large  grazing  unit,  showing  the 
location  and  acreage  of  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter  range. 

3.  Area  and  location  of  the  surface  acres  and  the  forage  acres 
of  each  type;  general  description  of  each  grazing  type  with  refer- 
ence to  improvement  in  its  use  and  management  generally ;  also, 
necessary  improvements,  such  as  the  construction  of  trails, 
stock  driveways,  bridges,  and  water  developments,  as  well  as 
reseeding  requirements. 

4.  The  proper  period  of  use  for  each  range  division  and  its 
exact  grazing  capacity. 

Grazing  and  Timber  Reconnaissance  Compared.  —  Students 
of  forestry  familiar  with  the  methods  employed  in  timber  recon- 
naissance may  be  benefited  by  a  summary  of  these  methods  as 
compared  with  those  of  grazing  reconnaissance. 

1.  The  methods  and  apphcation  of  timber  reconnaissance  were 
well  estabhshed  a  number  of  years  before  grazing  was  initiated. 
In  a  general  way,  therefore,  the  methods  of  timber  reconnais- 
sance served  as  a  basis  for  the  methods  followed  in  grazing 
reconnaissance. 

2.  In  timber  reconnaissance  accurate  control  lines  are  estab- 
lished prior  to  the  location  of  cruising  stri'ps.  In  grazing  recon- 
naissance control  lines  may  be  established,  or  the  elevation  and 
azimuth  may  be  carried  along  as  the  work  progresses. 

3.  In  timber  mapping,  in  surveyed  country  at  least,  every 
alternate  line  in  one  direction  is  retraced  and  marked  at  various 
intervals  to  serve  as  a  checking  and  starting  point.  In  the  map- 
ping of  the  range  the  Hnes  are  seldom  retraced  but  are  tied  in  if 
possible. 

4.  In  unsurveyed  country,  both  in  timber  and  in  grazing 
reconnaissance,  control  lines  are  extended  systematically  across 
the  area  or  in  the  form  of  "  meander  "  lines. 

5.  In  using  the  "  strip  "  surveying  method,  each  crew  in 
timber  mapping  is  composed  of  two  men,  one  of  whom  acts  as  a 
compassman  and  the  other  as  a  cruiser.  In  the  grazing  work 
each  man  works  independently. 


322  FORAGE   ESTIMATES 

6.  In  forest  mapping,  the  "  strips  "  are  run  at  least  once  and 
usually  twice  to  each  40-acre  area.  In  range  mapping,  the  strips 
are  never  run  more  than  once  through  a  forty,  and  then  only 
through  alternate  tiers  of  40  acres  in  each  section. 

7.  In  unsurveyed  country  timber  reconnaissance  provides 
that  no  more  than  2  miles  of  line  be  run  without  an  accurate 
"tie-in."  In  grazing  reconnaissance  never  less  than  4  miles 
and  very  often  6  miles  of  line  is  run  before  the  "  tie-in  "  is 
established. 

8.  The  scale  in  timber  mapping  is  8  inches  to  the  mile;  in 
range  mapping  it  is  never  more  than  4  inches  and  often  only  2 
inches  to  the  mile. 

9.  Timber  estimates  are  determined  by  actual  measurement 
(diameter  breast-high)  of  all  trees  on  a  66-foot  strip.  Sufficient 
measurements  are  made  for  the  examiner  to  record  the  timber 
production  with  a  high  degree  of  accuracy.  In  range  recon- 
naissance the  estimate  of  ground  cover  and  forage  production 
is  entirely  ocular,  as  the  forage  resources  permit  of  no  definitely 
measured  analysis. 

10.  A  description  of  the  forest  type  is  made  for  each  40-acre 
area.  In  grazing  work  the  description  is  made  on  the  basis  of  a 
section,  though,  to  be  sure,  each  type  within  this  section  is 
described  and  its  forage  value  shown. 

11.  In  timber  mapping  the  descriptive  report  involves  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  topographic  and  silvicultural  management  of  each 
unit  area  summarized  statistically.  The  same  general  plan  is 
followed  in  range  mapping,  but  with  such  changes  or  additions 
as  appear  to  be  essential  to  meet  the  particular  range  problem 
of  the  community. 

12.  In  timber  reconnaissance  the  final  map  is  on  the  scale  of 
4  inches  to  the  mile,  the  types  and  other  features  being  colored, 
and  contains  all  of  the  data  recorded.  In  grazing  reconnais- 
sance the  map  is  presented  on  a  scale  of  2  or  4  inches  to  the  mile, 
the  types  and  other  features  being  colored.  A  map  drawn  on  a 
scale  of  2  inches  to  the  mile  is  prepared  in  atlas  form  for  the  Forest 
as  a  whole.  In  timber  reconnaissance  a  crew  of  two  or  three 
men  work  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  a  section  per  day,  at  a 
cost  of  from  10  to  15  cents  per  acre.     In  grazing  reconnaissance 


LIMITATIONS  OF   GRAZING   RECONNAISSANCE  323 

a  man  working  individually  covers  one  to  three  sections  per  day, 
at  a  cost  of  approximately  i  to  4  cents  per  acre. 

Application  of  Grazing-Reconnaissance  Data  to  Practical 
Pasture  Management.  —  The  application  of  grazing-reconnais- 
sance  maps  and  of  the  descriptive  report  is  so  extensive  that  in 
themselves  they  well-nigh  serve  as  a  working  plan  for  grazing. 
Through  the  use  of  the  maps  those  concerned  with  the  manage- 
ment or  administration  of  the  lands  have  at  their  disposal  a 
bird's-eye  view  of  all  the  more  important  grazing  resources,  the 
timbered  areas,  and  the  topographic  features,  as  well  as  the  more 
important  cultural  effects  and  improvements.  Then,  too,  the 
number  of  stock  that  the  range  will  safely  carry  is  determined 
by  the  data  collected. 

While  the  chief  object  of  a  grazing  reconnaissance  is  to  furnish 
information  as  to  the  most  economical  and  improved  methods  of 
handling  livestock  and  to  indicate  how  the  lands  may  be  main- 
tained in  a  high  state  of  productivity,  the  data  have  also  an  in- 
valuable secondary  use.  In  case  of  a  forest  fire,  for  instance, 
the  topographic  map  and  other  features  may  readily  be  exam- 
ined. The  presence  of  certain  plant  types  may  determine  what 
methods  one  is  justified  in  pursuing  in  attempting  to  gain  control 
of  the  fire.  Observations  of  the  plant  type  where  the  fire  is  in 
progress  may  often  be  very  useful;  whereas  a  fire  may  spread 
rapidly  over  one  type,  it  may  be  checked  or  readily  controlled 
on  another.  Advantage  may  also  be  taken  of  such  features  as 
the  natural  drainage  systems,  ridges,  roads,  trails,  and  stock 
driveways,  which  are  shown  on  the  map. 

Accuracy  and  Limitations  of  Grazing  Reconnaissance.  —  The 
low  expense  of  grazing-reconnaissance  work  as  here  discussed  is 
obviously  due  to  the  fact  that  the  examiner  passes  through  a 
section  rapidly.  For  this  reason  it  sometimes  happens  that  cer- 
tain features  are  overlooked  which  are  pertinent  to  the  develop- 
ment of  a  detailed  working  plan  for  grazing.  Accordingly,  the 
maps  cannot  serve  all  the  purposes  that  may  be  desired.  Springs, 
cabins,  fences,  and  similar  features,  when  not  directly  in  the  path 
of  the  examiner,  may  not  be  located  accurately  on  the  map,  as 
their  location  and  distance  from  the  examiner  are  merely  esti- 


324  FORAGE   ESTIMATES 

mated. ^  Likewise,  the  size  and  location  of  the  different  plant 
types  is  not  exact.  However,  as  the  types  almost  invariably 
overlap  more  or  less,  it  would  be  possible  to  locate  them  only 
approximately,  even  if  the  work  were  done  much  more  accurately 
than  it  usually  is. 

Further,  the  exact  character  and  density  of  the  type  varies 
according  to  the  time  in  the  season  when  the  examination  is 
made.  An  area  examined  in  the  spring,  for  example,  might  shovi 
the  presence  of  certain  annual  plants,  such  as  dog's-tooth  violet 
(Erylhronium),  Douglas  kno tweed  {Polygonum),  and  onion 
(Allium).  If  the  area  were  examined  in  the  autumn,  the  annual 
species  would  not  be  noted,  as  they  dry  up  and  disappear  early 
in  the  summer.  However,  a  good  average  estimate  of  the  more 
important  permanent  constituents  of  the  plant  cover  is  recorded 
if  the  mapping  is  done  at  any  time  during  the  growing  season. 

Furthermore,  the  map  does  not  always  show  the  exact  con- 
ditions when  lands  are  sketched  as  "  poorly  stocked,"  or  as  hav- 
ing inadequate  watering  facilities.  If  land  is  sketched  as  poorly 
stocked,  that  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  there  is  insufficient 
palatable  vegetation.  The  cover  may  be  ample  and  of  high 
forage  quality;  but  the  area  may  be  so  steep  or  so  strewn  with 
down  timber,  or,  indeed,  it  may  be  so  swampy  or  otherwise  so 
inaccessible  as  to  be  of  little  grazing  value. 

Again,  areas  may  be  classified  as  inadequate  in  water  supply 
if  they  are  examined  late  in  the  autumn;  whereas,  they  would  be 
listed  as  having  ample  water  if  they  were  examined  early  in  the 
season  before  the  temporary  springs  and  seeps  had  dried  up. 
Furthermore,  a  classification  of  "  ample  water,"  reported  by  the 
examiner  in  the  spring,  might  hold  for  wet  seasons;  or,  the  classi- 
fication of  "  poorly  watered,"  as  listed  by  the  same  examiner, 
might  be  reliable  for  dry  seasons.  Then,  too^  as  the  examiner 
passes  rapidly  over  his  course,  he  may  fail  to  record  some  spring 
or  watering  trough  inconspicuously  situated  and  thus  show  the 
conditions  regarding  water  more  serious  than  they  really  are. 
Therefore  it  is  a  good  plan  to  reexamine,  casually  at  least,  all 

^  Sometimes  these  cultural  features  may  be  located  with  the  use  of  maps  in  the 
county  surveyor's  office  or  in  the  Land  Ollice.  On  unpatented  claims,  of  course, 
no  complete  maps  are  available,  and  the  features  must  be  estimated  by  the  examiner. 


THE   FORAGE   ACRE   AND   HOW   IT  IS   DERIVED  325 

lands  originally  listed  as  incapable  of  the  highest  possible  utili- 
zation. 

The  Forage  Acre  and  How  it  is  Derived.  —  "  Forage  acre  "  is 
the  term  used  in  designating  the  grazing  value  of  a  given  type. 
A  forage  acre  may  be  defined  as  an  acre  area  having  a  complete 
(ten-tenths)  cover  of  palatable  vegetation  or  the  equivalent 
thereof  in  density  and  palatabiHty.^  Probably  the  best  under- 
standing of  the  term  may  be  had  by  considering  briefly  how  the 
forage  acre  is  derived  from  the  reconnaissance  data. 

In  computing  the  number  of  forage  acres  contained  in  a  given 
range  type  the  total  acreage  of  the  land  area  is  multiplied  by  the 
surface  (expressed  in  tenths  of  the  whole)  which  actually  sup- 
ports vegetation.  This  figure,  in  turn,  is  multiplied  by  the  den- 
sity of  the  cover  and  the  percentage  of  palatable  vegetation. 
Thus  we  have  the  formula :  Total  land  area  X  Surface  supporting 
vegetation  X  Density  of  cover  X  Percentage  of  palatable  forage  = 
Forage  acre.  For  example,  let  us  assume  that  the  type  consists 
of  80  acres  (total  land  area)  and  that  the  surface  or  vegetation 
cover  is  y\.  Let  us  say  that  the  vegetation  of  this  y\  surface 
cover  has  a  density  of  y\,  and  that  80  per  cent  of  the  cover  is 
palatable  to  stock.  By  multiplying  the  factors  mentioned  above, 
namely,  the  total  acreage  of  the  type,  by  the  surface  acres  which 
support  vegetation,  then  by  the  density  of  the  vegetation  on  the 
area,  and  finally  by  the  percentage  of  the  vegetation  which  is 
palatable  to  stock,  we  have  a  figure,  namely,  36,  or  the  number 
of  forage  acres  in  the  type. 

With  such  known  factors  as  the  number  of  forage  acres  con- 
tained in  each  type,  their  accessibility  to  stock,  the  time  in  the 
season  when  the  herbage  should  be  cropped,  and  certain  other 
facts,  it  is  possible  to  determine  with  reasonable  accuracy  the 
number  of  stock  that  the  range  will  safely  supply  during  a  normal 
grazing  season  or  any  part  thereof. 

1  The  vegetation  cover  refers  only  to  the  surface  area  which  is  occupied  by  vege- 
tation. On  an  area  where  the  cover  is  not  complete  the  density  of  the  vegetation 
is  shown  by  applying  the  surface-cover  factor  in  tenths,  10/10  being  a  complete 
cover.  The  estimate  of  density  is  determined  by  the  comparison  of  the  type  under 
consideration  with  a  similar  type  having  a  10/10  density. 


326  FORAGE   ESTIMATES 

Comparative  Value  of  a  Forage  Acre  of  Different  Types.  —  One 
of  the  most  puzzling  and  complicated  features  experienced  by 
the  apprentice  grazing  examiner  is  the  practical  application  of 
the  forage  acre.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  a  forage  acre  of  one 
type  of  range  does  not  necessarily  have  the  same  pasture  value 
as  does  a  forage  acre  of  quite  a  different  type.  Yet  this  is  not 
an  unsurmountable  complication  among  experienced  range 
technicians.  However,  grazing  reconnaissance  would  be  more 
directly  applicable  in  estimating  the  grazing  capacity  of  an  area 
which  supports  various  types  of  vegetation  if  a  forage  acre  of  one 
type  had  the  same  grazing  value  as  that  of  any  other  type. 

In  grazing  reconnaissance  the  use  of  the  term  forage  acre  is 
comparable  to  that  of  a  ton  of  roughage;  it  is  merely  a  standard 
measure  of  comparison.  Nobody  would  argue  that  a  ton  of 
alfalfa  hay  contains  the  same  feeding  value  or  fattening  quahties 
as  does  a  ton  of  timothy.  Indeed,  nobody  would  contend  that 
a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  has  the  same  food  value  for  the  different 
classes  of  foraging  animals.  For  similar  reasons  stockmen  and 
pasture  experts  would  not  contend  that  a  forage  acre  of  succulent 
broad-leaved  herbs  ("  weeds  "),  for  example,  would  furnish  as 
much  feed  for  cattle  or  horses  as  for  sheep  in  numbers  equivalent 
to  cattle  or  horses  in  forage  requirement.  However,  a  forage 
acre  of  a  given  type  in  a  given  region,  like  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay, 
has  practically  the  same  forage  value  for  a  given  class  of  stock  as 
has  the  same  type  of  forage  acre  no  matter  how  remotely  lo- 
cated within  that  region. 

To  determine  the  relative  grazing  capacity  of  the  different 
types  a  large  number  of  practical  grazing  tests  with  the  different 
classes  of  stock  has  been  made  by  the  United  States  Forest 
Service,  and  the  relative  grazing  value  of  a  forage  acre  of  many 
of  the  important  types  has  been  determined  with  considerable 
accuracy.  Although  this  work  is  in  its  infancy,  it  is  nevertheless 
possible  to  estimate  somewhat  closely  on  a  forage-acre  basis  the 
grazing  capacity  of  any  portion  of  the  range  or  of  the  range  as  a 
whole.  Thus  the  actual  carrying  capacity  of  a  forage  acre  of  a 
given  type  takes  the  place  of  such  a  chemical  analysis  or  food- 
value  test,  for  instance,  as  has  been  determined  for  a  ton  of 
alfalfa  hay. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  327 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Enumerate  the  chief  objects  of  a  grazing  reconnaissance. 

2.  What  conditions  of  range  and  what  extent  of  area  justify  the  expense 
of  making  a  grazing  reconnaissance? 

3.  Name  three  problems  of  high  importance  to  judicious  range  manage- 
ment that  a  grazing  reconnaissance  aims  to  clarify. 

4.  How  many  distinct  grazing  types  are  recognized  in  classifying  a  range 
by  the  reconnaissance  method? 

5.  Discuss  briefly  the  methods  employed  in  obtaining  grazing  reconnais- 
sance data,  taking  into  account  (i)  the  gridiron  method,  (2)  the  traverse- 
sketching  method,  and  (3)  the  triangulation  method. 

6.  Define  (i)  forage  acre,  (2)  density  of  vegetation  cover,  (3)  complete 
ground  cover. 

7.  How  would  you  express  a  forage  type  in  terms  of  forage  acres? 

8.  (a)  What  are  the  advantages  of  forage-acre  data  in  making  carrying- 
capacity  estimates?  (b)  Enumerate  factors  other  than  the  forage-acre  data 
that  are  important  in  determining  the  grazing  capacity  of  a  range. 

9.  Discuss  the  comparative  value  of  a  forage  acre  of  different  types. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Breed,  Charles  B.,  and  Hosmer,  George  L.     The  Principles  and  Prac- 
tice of  Surveying.     John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.,  N.  Y.,  1917. 

Gary,  Austin.    A  Manual  for  North  American  Woodsmen.     Harvard 
Univ.  Press,  Cambridge,  1918. 

Chapline,  W.  R.     Production  of  Goats  on  Far  Western  Ranges.     U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  749,  1919. 

Clements,  Frederic  E.     Plant  Indicators:   The  Relation  of  Plant  Com- 
munities to  Processes  and  Practice.     Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash., 
Pub.  No.  290,  1920. 
Plant  Succession:    An  Analysis  of  the  Development  of  Vegetation. 

Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash.,  Pub.  No.  242,  1916. 
Research  Methods  in  Ecology.     Univ.  Pub.  Co.,  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  1905. 

Forest  Service.     Grazing  Reconnaissance  Outline.     Unpubhshed  Report 
Wash.,  D.  C. 

Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark.     Range  Management  on  the 
National  Forests.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  1919. 

Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Forsling,  Clarence  L.     Range  and  Cattle  Man- 
agement During  Drought.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  1031,  1922. 

Sampson,  Arthur  W.     Important  Forage  Plants:   Their  Life  History  and 
Forage  Value.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  545,  191 7. 
The  Quadrat  Method  as  Applied  to  Investigations  in  Forestry.     Forest 
Club  Annual,  Univ.  of  Nebr.,  Vol.  6,  1915. 

Wooton,  E.  O.     Carrying  Capacity  of  Grazing  Ranges  in  Southern  Ari 
zona.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  367,  1916. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

GRAZING    CAPACITY    AND    PASTURE    INSPECTION 
GRAZING  CAPACITY 

The  grazing  capacity  of  a  pasture  area  may  be  defined  as  the 
number  of  stock  of  one  or  more  classes  which  the  area  will  sup- 
port in  good  condition  during  the  time  that  the  forage  is  pala- 
table and  accessible,  without  decreasing  the  forage  production 
in  subsequent  seasons.  The  determination  of  the  grazing  ca- 
pacity of  a  pasture  area  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  yet  important 
tasks  that  the  stockman  and  pasture  technician  have  to  solve. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  grazing-capacity  equation 
has  not  been  worked  out  on  any  range  unit  with  mathematical 
precision.  Furthermore,  in  view  of  the  numerous  variable  and 
uncontrollable  factors  that  present  themselves  nearly  every 
season,  it  is  not  likely  that  the  grazing-capacity  factor  will 
ever  be  worked  out  to  a  high  degree  of  scientific  accuracy. 
Many  of  the  variables  in  forage  production,  as  well  as  in  seasonal 
grazing  and  grazing  for  longer  periods,  are  due  to  what  may  be 
termed  "human"  factors  —  factors  which  may  be  modified 
or  controlled  by  human  effort.  Among  such  factors  may  be 
mentioned:  (i)  Overgrazing;  (2)  undergrazing;  (3)  pasturing 
by  the  wrong  class  of  stock;  (4)  turning  the  stock  on  the  pasture 
too  early  in  the  spring;  (5)  methods  of  handHng  the  stock; 
(6)  condition  of  flesh  in  which  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  stock; 
and  (7)  failure  to  develop  watering  places  with  a  view  to  ob- 
taining the  fullest  possible  utilization  of  the  forage  crop  over 
the  area  as  a  whole. 

Basis  for  Estimating  Grazing  Capacity.  —  In  the  investi- 
gation to  determine  grazing  capacity  two  distinct  methods  have 
been  employed.  The  studies  of  grazing  capacity  by  the  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture—probably the  pioneer  work  along  this  line  in  the 
United  States  —  were  confined  chiefly  to  fenced  range  reserves 

328 


BASIS   FOR   ESTIMATING  GRAZING  CAPACITY  329 

in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  In  one  series  of  tests,  employing 
what  may  be  termed  the  indirect  method,  the  investigation 
provided  for  the  harvesting  of  all  the  herbage  that  was  produced 
on  specially  selected  plots  about  5  by  10  feet  in  size.  Some  of 
the  plots  were  fully  protected  from  stock;  others  were  located 
in  special  pastures.  The  herbage  was  usually  harvested  in  the 
summer,  but  from  some  plots  it  was  removed  in  the  spring. 
From  the  weights  of  dry  material  obtained,  the  total  productiv- 
ity in  terms  of  pounds  of  forage  per  acre  was  calculated.  From 
each  year's  calculations  an  average  for  the  year  was  figured, 
and  from  the  yearly  averages  an  average  of  all  the  records  was 
obtained. 

In  addition  to  this  clear-cutting  method  of  determining  the 
forage  per  acre,  hay  was  cut  on  the  better  parts  of  the  range 
reserve,  and  the  production  of  hay  per  acre  was  compared  with 
the  total  amount  produced  as  determined  by  the  collections. 
With  a  knowledge  of  the  forage  requirements  in  terms  of  air- 
dry  roughage,  the  grazing  capacity  of  the  area  was  calculated. 

Another  plan,  which  may  be  termed  the  direct  method, 
employed  by  the  same  bureau  in  determining  grazing-capacity 
estimates,  was  to  keep  a  record  of  the  animal-days'  feed  con- 
sumed within  the  individual  pastures.  Such  records  were  kept 
for  a  period  of  five  successive  years  under  the  management 
which  is  in  common  practice  in  that  particular  grazing  region. 
In  order  to  derive  reliable  grazing-capacity  estimates  by  the 
direct  method,  notably  where  the  animals  cannot  be  under  the 
observation  of  the  investigator  at  all  times,  the  type  should  be 
uniform  and  relatively  pure;  the  area  should  be  securely  fenced 
if  possible;  the  exact  acreage  of  the  area  must  be  known;  the 
departures  from  the  normal  in  forage  production  and  the  close- 
ness of  the  grazing  should  be  carefully  recorded  at  the  end  of 
each  grazing  season;  the  dates  at  which  the  stock  is  admitted 
and  removed  from  the  pasture  should  be  noted;  and  the  num- 
ber, class,  and  age  of  the  stock  used  each  year  in  the  test  should 
be  registered.  The  test  should  be  continued  long  enough  to  in- 
clude the  more  striking  departures  in  the  annual  forage  pro- 
duction. 


^^O  GRAZING   CAPACITY  AND   PASTURE  INSPECTION 

The  chief  objection  to  the  above  methods  of  deriving  grazing- 
capacity  estimates  is  that  the  grazing  values  of  the  different 
types  of  forage  were  not  strictly  taken  into  account.  For  this 
reason  the  figures  obtained  cannot  well  be  appUed  to  lands  other 
than  those  similar  to  the  pastures  in  which  the  study  was  con- 
ducted. 

The  studies  of  grazing  capacity  by  the  United  States  Forest 
Service  have  already  been  described.  In  the  beginning  of 
studies  of  this  kind  the  first  step  is  the  making  of  a  careful  graz- 
ing reconnaissance  of  the  area  selected.  At  the  completion  of 
this  activity  the  data  are  tabulated  to  show,  among  other  things, 
the  forage  by  types,  the  forage  acres  of  each  type,  the  accessi- 
bihty  of  the  forage,  and  other  important  conditions.  A  record 
is  then  kept  of  the  number  of  stock  of  each  class  grazed,  the 
length  of  season  grazed,  and,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  actual 
time  that  the  stock  are  maintained  on  the  different  forage  types. 
Weights  are  usually  recorded  for  a  reliable  number  of  the  stock 
of  all  classes  grazed,  in  order  that  the  all-important  matter  of 
losses  or  gains  in  weight  may  be  known.  A  record  is  kept  of  the 
deaths  of  stock  during  the  grazing-capacity  test  and  the  causes 
thereof,  for  it  is  the  aim  to  keep  the  stock  in  good  growing  con- 
dition at  all  times.  Careful  records  are  also  kept  as  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  forage  throughout  the  test  period,  its  utilization, 
the  yield  departures  from  the  normal,  as  well  as  estimates  of 
the  degree  of  the  stocking  on  the  stand  and  the  yield  in  future. 

Grazing  Capacity  of  Ranges  and  Farm  Pastures.  —  The 
grazing-capacity  figures  here  given  have  been  developed  on  the 
basis  of  the  minimum  acreage  required  to  maintain  a  foraging 
animal  in  good,  thrifty  condition  through  the  grazing  season 
stipulated.  For  purposes  of  ready  comparison,  the  data  pre- 
sented in  the  following  table  are  expressed  on  a  cow-unit  basis. ^ 

^  Custom  varies  considerably  in  the  matter  of  the  number  of  sheep  or  goats  which 
are  taken  as  the  equivalent  of  a  cow  in  ascertaining  the  acreage  of  pasture 
necessary  for  each  per  season  or  other  unit  of  time.  The  prevailing  proportion 
in  western  ranges  is  four  sheep  or  four  goats  to  one  cow.  In  some  Western  States, 
however,  five  or  even  six  sheep  or  goats  per  cow  unit  is  the  usage.  A  horse  is 
usually  considered  the  equivalent  of  a  cow,  just  as  a  goat  is  of  a  sheep. 


ACREAGE  REQUIRED  FOR  CATTLE 


331 


Grazing  Capacity  of  the  National  Forests  in  Cow  Units  from  1907  to 
1921,  Inclusive  « 


Total  cow  units  of 

Fiscal   year  ending 
June  30 

Gross  area  of  National 
Forests   exclusive   of 
Alaska  and  Porto  Rico 

grazing  furnished 
(One  cow  is  here  con- 
sidered the  equivalent 
of  5  sheep  or  5  goats) 

Gross  acreage  &  per 
cow  unit  per  year 

1907 

145,855,835 

2,531-575 

57-6 

1908 

155,823,310 

2,797,567 

55 

7 

1909 

167,677,749 

3,145,323 

53 

3 

1910 

166,103,621 

3,024,215 

54 

9 

1911 

163,793.443 

2,933,321 

55 

8 

1912 

160,591,576 

3,008,716 

53 

4 

1913 

159,801,848 

3,127,411 

51 

I 

1914 

158,506,402 

3,140,640 

50 

5 

191S 

157,691,152 

3,180,991 

49 

6 

1916 

155,009,043 

3-434,962 

45 

I 

1917 

155-172,775 

3-579-273 

43 

4 

1918 

154,872,111 

3-942,452 

39 

3 

^919 

153,482,239 

3,827,971 

40 

I 

1920 

159,520,622 

3,581,779 

44 

S 

1921 

161,041,305 

3,626,855 

44-4 

"  These  data  wore  furnished  through  the  courtesy  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 
*  The  gross-acreage  requirement  for  a  cow  unit  per  year  as  here  given  embraces  all  of  the  waste 
ind  barren  lands  included  in  the  National  Forests. 


In  1907  the  average  required  was  57.6  gross  or  surface  acres 
to  support  a  cow  unit  as  compared  with  39.3  acres  in  1918,  with 
a  gradual  trend  towards  the  minimum  during  the  intervening 
years.  These  data  are  significant  in  that  they  show  clearly  the 
effect  of  improved  range  management  in  increasing  the  grazing 
capacity. 

Acreage  Required  for  Cattle,  —  Jardine  and  Anderson^  have 
shown  that  on  National  Forest  range,  all  the  important  types 
and  varied  topographic  features  considered,  an  average  of  24 
to  30  surface  acres,  exclusive  of  inaccessible  lands,  or  about 
9.6  forage  acres,  are  required  per  year  for  a  cow  unit.  This  is 
equivalent  to  approximately  12.5  surface  acres,  or  4.4  forage 
acres  for  the  usual  summer-grazing  period  on  the  National 
Forests  of  five  and  one-half  months.  On  the  Santa  Rita  Range 
Reserve  in  southern  Arizona,  an  area  located  in  the  foothills, 

1  Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark,  "Range  Management  on  the  National 
Forests."     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  pp.  27-30,  1919. 


332  GRAZIXG   CAPACITY  AND   PASTURE   INSPECTION 

these  investigators  found  that  on  good  grass  range   14  gross 
acres  was  ample  to  support  a  cow  unit  for  a  year. 

Various  miscellaneous  data  prompt  the  writer  to  estimate 
the  average  grazing  capacity  of  the  public-domain  lands  re- 
maining in  the  far  Western  States  in  1923  as  between  25  and  35 
acres  for  a  cow  unit  per  year.  The  grazing  capacity  of  these 
lands  on  a  yearly  basis  is  variously  estimated  from  about  18 
to  considerably  over  100  acres  per  cow  unit  (Fig.  122). 


Fig.  122.  — winter   DESERT   RANGE  OF   SAGE   AND   SHADSCALE   IN  THE   GREAT 

BASIN   REGION. 
Here  approximately  60  gross  acres  are  required  to  maintain  a  cow  throughout  the  year.     Compare 

this  cover  with  that  of  palatable  grassland  (Fig.  114),  where  14  acres  are  ample  to  maintain 

a  cow  in  good  condition  for  a  year. 

In  contrast  to  the  large  acreage  requirement  for  the  annual 
support  of  a  cow  unit  in  the  drier  regions  of  the  West,  no  more 
than  1 1  gross  acres  is  required  to  support  a  cow  for  a  5 -month 
period,  or  the  equivalent  of  3.6  acres  per  year  on  the  better- 
irrigated  farm  pastures  in  the  far  West  or  in  those  middle  West- 
ern States  where  the  rainfall  is  such  as  to  stimulate  the  production 
of  a  continued  luxuriant  growth  of  forage.  Intermediate  con- 
ditions between  the  arid  West  and  the  humid  areas  of  the  middle 
West  are  found  in  Kansas.  Hensel's '  studies  at  the  Kansas 
Experiment  Station  show  that  for  the  eastern  half  of  that  State 
from  10^  to  about  12  acres  of  native  pasture  land  is  required 
per  year  for  a  cow  unit. 

1  Hensel,  R.  L.,  Unpublished  report,  Kansas  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Manhattan,  Kans. 


INSPECTION  OF  RANGE   AND   FARM   PASTURE  ^^^ 

Acreage  Required  for  Sheep.  —  The  acreage  requirements  for 
sheep  were  determined  on  National  Forest  range  by  Jardine  and 
Anderson.^  These  determinations  covered  several  years  and 
were  made  on  the  basis  of  fifty-six  allotments  on  typical  summer 
range  of  all  classes  and  types.  An  average  of  2.5  gross  acres, 
or  0.79  forage  acres,  was  required  to  support  one  ewe  or  two 
lambs  for  an  average  grazing  period  of  72  days.  These  writers 
conclude  as  follows: 

It  would  appear  from  close  study  of  the  tests  conducted,  and  from  similar 
figures  deduced  from  range  reconnaissance  surveys,  that  o.oi  forage  acres  per 
head  per  day  is  about  right  for  range  suited  to  sheep  grazing.  This  would  be 
equivalent  to  about  0.03  surface  acres  per  head  per  day,  exclusive  of  range 
having  no  value  for  grazing,  or  about  3  surface  acres  for  a  grazing  period  of 
100  days. 

On  an  annual  basis,  then,  11  gross  acres,  or  the  equivalent 
of  3.65  forage  acres,  would  be  required  per  year. 

The  average  yearlong  acreage  requirement  for  the  support 
of  a  cow  unit  on  the  National  Forest  range  of  24  to  30  surface 
acres,  or  9.6  forage  acres,  and  the  yearlong  requirement  of  about 
II  surface  acres,  or  3.65  forage  acres,  for  a  sheep,  do  not  neces- 
sarily bear  any  relation  to  each  other.  This  is  due  chiefly  to  the 
wide  variation  in  the  forage  relished  by  these  classes  of  stock. 
Therefore,  when  a  change  is  made  on  the  range  from  one  class 
of  stock  to  the  other  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  area  in  ques- 
tion should  be  reestimated  for  the  class  of  stock  to  be  grazed. 

PASTURE  INSPECTION. 
Inspection  of  Range  and  Farm  Pasture.  —  There  is  no  magic 
about  the  production  of  forage  or  the  harvesting  of  the  pasture 
crop  by  foraging  animals  However,  to  produce  continuously 
the  maximum  choice  crop  of  forage  that  the  lands  are  capable 
of  growing  and  to  harvest  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  the  largest 
continuous  economic  returns  possible  is  a  matter  that  requires 
much  study  and  the  close  inspection  both  of  the  stock  and  the 
forage  resources.     Observations  as  to  the  conditions  of  range  and 

'  Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark,  "  Range  Management  on  the  National 
Forests."    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  p.  28,  1919. 


334  GRAZING  CAPACITY  AND  PASTURE  INSPECTION 

farm  pastures  almost  everywhere  constitute  evidence  of  the 
fact  that  many  matters  of  first  importance  in  continued  forage 
and  livestock  production  are  frequently  overlooked  in  deter- 
mining their  future  management.  Accordingly,  an  outUne  is 
given  of  the  more  important  considerations  in  inspecting  the 
range  or  farm  pasture.^ 

1.  If  a  grazing  reconnaissance  or  even  a  rough  field  map  has 
been  made  of  the  pasture  area  in  question,  all  data  possible 
should  be  recorded  thereon,  as  such  records  are  often  invaluable. 
It  is  especially  important  that  such  data  as  the  following  be 
shown  on  the  map:  (i)  Class  or  classes  of  stock  grazed;  (2) 
date  when  the  stock  may  be  admitted  in  the  spring;  (3)  inten- 
sity of  grazing  over  different  parts  of  the  area;  (4)  any  changes 
in  the  boundary  or  driveways  to  and  from  the  area;  (5)  the 
grazing  capacity  of  each  major  forage  unit;  (6)  location  of 
salting  places,  water,  and  necessary  water  development;  and 
(7)  places  where  timber  reproduction  is  injured  by  grazing,  where 
poisonous  plants  abound,  where  the  range  is  especially  in  need  of 
reseeding,  and  where  other  improvements  are  needed.  On 
large  range  units,  especially  where  cne  surface  is  much  broken, 
a  reliable  map  is  almost  indispensable  to  the  judicious  man- 
agement of  the  lands  and  the  stock. 

2.  Is  each  range  unit  being  grazed  by  the  class  or  classes 
of  stock  to  which  it  is  best  suited?  Lands  which  have  been 
used  exclusively  by  cattle  for  several  seasons  are  liable  to  be- 
come weedy,  such  vegetation  often  replacing  a  large  portion  of 
the  grass  feed.  The  grazing  capacity  of  many  a  farm  pasture 
has  been  much  improved  for  cattle  by  permitting  a  few  sheep  to 
consume  the  weeds  before  they  go  to  seed.  Mowing  the  pasture 
before  the  seeds  of  the  weeds  ripen  is  also  a  good  practice. 

3.  Are  the  lands  being  grazed  uniformly  or  are  some  areas 
overgrazed  and  others  undergrazed? 

4.  What  is  the  grazing  capacity  of  the  types  which  are  being 

^  In  preparing  this  outline  on  range  and  pasture  inspection  use  has  been  made 
of  the  work  on  range  inspection  by  Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark,  "  Range 
Management  on  the  National  Forests,"  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  pp.  76-79, 
1919. 


INSPECTION  OF  RANGE  AND   FARM  PASTURE  335 

grazed  (i)  too  closely  and  (2)  not  closely  enough?  ^  Such  ques- 
tions can  best  be  answered  by  consulting  the  type  maps  if  a 
reconnaissance  has  been  made.  If  such  data  are  not  available, 
grazing-capacity  estimates  must  be  made  ocularly  in  the  field. 

5.  Is  any  portion  grazed  too  early,  and  is  any  visited  by  stock 
so  late  that  the  herbage  is  not  palatable?  If  so,  how  may  such 
mismanagement  be  remedied? 

6.  Is  there  ample  supplemental  feed,  such  as  silage,  hay,  or 
other  roughage,  reserved  for  feeding  in  the  spring  in  order  that 
injury  to  the  pasture  caused  by  too  early  grazing  may  be  avoided? 
If  not,  cannot  supplemental  feed  of  some  kind  be  provided  with 
good  results  to  both  the  stock  and  the  pasture? 

7.  Is  each  class  of  stock  properly  handled?  Close  herding  of 
sheep,  the  excessive  use  of  dogs,  and  the  use  of  estabhshed  bed 
grounds  should  be  discouraged ;  cattle  should  be  well  distributed 
at  all  times. 

8.  Are  there  adequate  salting  grounds  for  cattle,  and  are 
they  located  properly  with  respect  to  water  and  forage?  Do  the 
sheep  get  all  the  salt  they  will  eat  as  often  as  every  ten  days? 

9.  Is  the  tree  reproduction  on  any  area  appreciably  injured 
by  stock  browsing  upon  it?  Would  a  change  in  the  class  of 
stock  or  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  the  present  class  remedy 
the  evil? 

10.  Are  any  areas  particularly  in  need  of  reseeding,  and  is 
any  portion  denuded  to  such  an  extent  that  erosion  is  starting? 
What  is  the  most  economical  and  expedient  means  of  reestab- 
lishing the  stand? 

11.  If  there  is  a  gradual  decline  in  the  grazing  capacity  of  an 
area,  is  it  due  (i)  to  overstocking,  (2)  to  too  early  grazing,  (3)  to 

^  The  extent  of  the  utilization  of  a  pasture  area  by  one  or  more  classes  of  stock 
is  best  expressed  in  percentage.  For  the  sake  of  uniformity,  100  per  cent  is  con- 
sidered full  but  not  destructive  utilization,  the  forage  preferences  of  the  class  of 
stock  grazed  being  considered,  so  that  the  growth  in  future  is  fully  maintained. 
Accordingly,  any  grazing  beyond  100  per  cent,  or  full  utilization,  may  be  classed 
as  overgrazing.  However,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  determine  the  extent  to 
which  the  grazing  may  be  declared  100  per  cent  or  complete  utilization,  or  no 
per  cent,  let  us  say  —  that  is,  10  per  cent  overutilization.  The  test  of  over- 
utilization,  however,  is  seen  in  the  decline  in  the  forage  production  in  subsequent 
seasons. 


336  GRAZING  CAPACITY  AND   PASTURE   INSPECTION 

poor  distribution  of  the  stock,  (4)  to  the  need  of  a  fertilizer, 
(5)  to  tightly  bound  sod,  or  (6)  to  some  other  cause?  In  lo- 
calities where  lime  or  phosphorus  are  required  various  indi- 
cators flourish,  as,  for  example,  moss,  bracken  fern,  and  numerous 
other  acid-tolerant  weeds.  The  addition  of  lime  or  some  stand- 
ard phosphate  fertilizer  readily  corrects  the  soil  depletion  and 
fosters  the  development  of  the  vegetation  desired.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  a  sod-bound  pasture  is  immediately  im- 
proved by  disking  or  otherwise  loosening  up  the  surface. 

12.  What  are  the  chief  forage  species  as  well  as  the  more 
objectionable  and  aggressive  weeds?  At  what  time  does  the 
seed  crop  of  the  best  forage  plants  ripen? 

13.  What  are  the  poisonous  plant  species,  and  to  what'.extent 
and  at  what  time  in  the  season  do  the  livestock  losses  occur 
therefrom?  Would  it  be  practical  to  eradicate  the  plant  spe- 
cies causing  the  losses?  If  so,  how  much  would  it  cost,  and 
when  could  the  work  be  done  most  effectively? 

14.  What  improvements  should  be  made,  and  what  is  the 
condition  of  the  fences,  corrals,  and  other  such  features  already 
constructed? 

15.  If  there  are  any  game  animals,  what  kind  and  approxi- 
mately how  many  are  there?  Are  they  increasing  or  diminishing 
in  number?  Is  their  number  so  great  that  they  consume  an 
appreciable  amount  of  feed  which  would  otherwise  be  utilized 
economically  by  domestic  foraging  animals?  Where  do  they 
range  (i)  in  summer,  (2)  in  winter? 

A  guide  to  the  answers  to  the  foregoing  questions  will  be  found 
in  the  preceding  chapters. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  grazing  capacity. 

2.  Name  several  "human"  or  controllable  factors  which  may  influence 
the  grazing  capacity  of  a  pasture. 

3.  Name  and  discuss  two  distinct  methods  which  have  been  employed  in 
determining  grazing  capacity. 

4.  How  many  sheep  or  goats  may  be  taken  as  the  equivalent  of  a  cow  in 
determining  the  acreage  of  pasture  required  for  a  given  unit  of  time? 

5.  What  were  the  gross  or  surface  acreage  requirements  per  cow  unit  on 
National  Forest  range  in  1907,  and  in  192 1? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  337 

6.  Exclusive  of  inaccessible  range,  what  is  the  average  (i)  surface-acreage 
and  (2)  forage-acre  requirement  on  the  National  Forest  for  a  cow  unit  per 
annum?  What  is  the  maximum  gross-acreage  requirement  on  the  poorer 
public-domain  lands? 

7.  What  is  (i)  the  surface-acreage  and  (2)  the  forage-acre  requirement  for 
the  support  of  a  sheep  during  the  summer-grazing  period  on  National  Forest 
range? 

8.  Name  six  important  questions  that  should  be  answered  in  making  an 
inspection  of  a  range  or  farm  pasture. 

9.  Discuss  the  use  of  the  map  of  a  pasture  area  in  making  a  grazing  in- 
spection. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Barnes,  Will  C.     Stock-Watering  Places  on  Western  Grazing  Lands. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  592,  1914. 
Farley,  F.  W.,  and  Greene,  S.  W.     The  Cut-over  Pine  Lands  of  the 
South  for  Beef -Cattle  Production.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  827, 
1921. 
FoRSLiNG,   Clarence  L.     Chopped  Soapweed  as  Emergency  Feed  for 
Cattle  on  Southwestern  Ranges.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  745, 
1919. 
Griffiths,  D.     Range  Investigations  in  Arizona.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr., 
Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  67,  1904. 
The  Reseeding  of  Depleted  Range  and  Native  Pastures.     U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  117,  1907. 
Jardine,   James   T.     Range   Improvement   and   Improved    Methods   of 
Handling  Stock  in  National  Forests.     Proc.  Soc.  Amer.  For.,  Vol. 
7,  1912. 
Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark.     Range  Management  on  the 

National  Forests.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  1919. 
Jardine,   James  T.,    and   Forsling,   Clarence  L.     Range  and   Cattle 
Management  During  Drought.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  103 1, 
1922. 
Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Hurtt,  Leon  C.     Increased  Cattle  Production  on 

Southwestern  Ranges.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  588,  1917. 
Nelson,  Aven.    The  Wheatgrasses  of  Wyoming.     Wyo.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 

Bui.  59,  Pt.  I,  1903. 
Potter,  Ermine  L.     Western  Livestock  Management.     The  Macmillan 

Co.,  N.  Y.,  1917. 
Sampson,  Arthlti  W.     Climate  and  Plant  Growth  in  Certain  Vegetative 
Associations.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  700,  1918. 
Important   Forage   Plants:    Their  Life   History   and   Forage   Value. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  545,  1917. 


SSS  GRAZING   CAPACITY  AND   PASTURE  INSPECTION 

Sampson,  Arthur  W.     Natural  Rcvcgctation  of  Range  Lands  Based  upon 
Growth  Requirements  and  Life  History  of  the  Vegetation.     U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.,  Jour.  Agr.  Research,  Vol.  3,  No.  2,  1914. 
Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Management.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.  Bui.  791, 1919. 

Smith,  J.  G.     Grazing  Problems  in  the  Southwest  and  How  to  Meet  Them. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Div.  of  Agrost.,  Bui.  16,  1899. 

Woodward,  T.  E.,  et  al.     The  Making  and  Feeding  of  Silage.      U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.  Farmers  Bui.  578,  revised  1920. 

WooTON,  E.  O.     Carrying  Capacity  of  Grazing  Ranges  in  Southern  Ari- 
zona.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  367,  1916. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

RESEARCH  METHODS  IN  RANGE  AND  PASTURE 
REVEGETATION 

It  has  been  shown  in  Chapter  VI  that  a  more  or  less  orderly 
change  is  continuously  taking  place  in  the  composition  and 
density  of  the  plant  cover  everywhere,  regardless  of  whether 
the  land  is  utilized  by  man  or  remains  unclaimed  in  its  virgin 
state.  The  methods  of  cropping  on  range  lands  determine 
whether  the  plant  succession  shall  be  in  the  direction  of  improve- 
ment or  of  degeneration  in  the  yield  and  nutritive  value  of  the 
forage,  regardless  of  the  rapidity  of  that  succession.  It  seems 
hardly  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  importance  of  knowing 
with  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy  the  trend,  up  or  down  the 
scale,  of  the  development  of  vegetation  on  pasture  lands,  as 
this  tendency  determines  the  ultimate  grazing  capacity  of  the 
land.  Experience  —  in  this  matter  a  very  costly  teacher  — 
has  shown  without  doubt  that  an  occasional  ocular  examination 
to  determine  the  condition  of  the  grazing  grounds  in  a  given 
locality  is  quite  unreliable  for  the  noting  of  slight  changes  or 
even  the  more  striking  departures  in  the  replacement  or  suc- 
cession of  pasture  vegetation. 

In  the  study  of  grazing  capacity  and  pasture  revegetation 
it  is  essential  to  know  with  precision  (i)  the  ways  of  reproduction 
of  the  dominant  species  of  the  vegetation  and  their  capacity 
therefor,  particularly  of  the  palatable  species  and  of  the  more 
aggressive  unpalatable  intruders;  (2)  which  plant  or  set  of 
plants  is  gaining  dominion  over  the  soil  in  response  to  the  differ- 
ent methods  of  grazing  use  and  also  on  similar  unused  lands; 
(3)  the  potential  or  maximum  forage  yield  of  the  different  con- 
spicuous grazing  types;  (4)  the  variation  in  the  yield  of  the 
different  types  year  after  year;  and  (5)  any  beneficial  effects 
resulting  from  a  slight  change  in  the  methods  of  handling  the 
339 


340  RESEARCH   METHODS 

stock  and  tending  toward  a  replacement  of  the  undesirable 
(nonpalatable  and  poisonous)  plants  by  palatable,  nutritious, 
and  heavy-yielding  species,  preferably  perennials. 

Only  reliable  information  can  be  helpful  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  rational  grazing  plan  that  is  to  bring  about  a  maximum 
forage  yield,  with  a  minimum  of  disturbance  and  loss  in  the 
forage  use  during  the  revegetational  period.  This  presupposes 
a  detailed  knowledge  of  the  successional  stages  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  vegetation.  To  obtain  such  reliable  data  requires 
the  use  of  various  forms  of  sample  plots  so  located  over  the 
pasture  area  studied  and  in  such  relation  to  forage  types,  soils, 
and  topographic  features  as  to  show  the  developmental  trend 
of  the  vegetation  as  a  whole. 

The  author  feels  that  a  brief  summary  of  his  fifteen  years  of 
intensive  study  of  the  use  of  sample  plots  and  their  establish- 
ment, of  the  various  ways  of  mapping  the  cover,  and  of  methods 
of  summarizing  the  data  with  a  view  to  interpreting  the  results 
correctly,  may  be  of  value  to  the  junior  investigator. 

Permanent  Sample  Plots.  —  To  be  of  real  value  sample  plots 
must  be  so  established  that  future  mappings  will  show  clearly 
what  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  plant  cover,  and  hence 
how  much  the  pasture  has  increased  or  decreased  in  grazing 
capacity.  For  such  a  study  the  sample  plots  must  be  reason- 
ably permanent.  Permanency  of  plots  presupposes  two  con- 
ditions: (i)  The  locating  and  marking  of  the  plots  in  such  a 
manner  that  fires,  grazing,  and  other  ordinary  destructive 
factors  will  not  hamper  the  re-location  of  the  area;  and  (2)  the 
mapping  of  the  vegetation  and  the  summarizing  of  the  map 
data  in  such  a  way  that  comparisons  may  readily  be  made, 
and  in  such  detail  that  satisfactory  future  relationships  may  be 
insured.  Permanent  sample  plots  should  be  available  for  study 
by  trained  investigators  at  any  time  during  a  period  of  years, 
possibly  a  century  or  more. 

Kinds  of  Plots  and  Their  Establishment.  —  Sample  plots 
may  be  of  various  sizes  and  shapes;  for  intensive  studies  a  few 
square  feet  (or,  indeed,  a  meter)  may  suffice,  whereas  for  the 
more  general  work  many  acres  may  be  used.     In  shape  they  may 


CHART  PLOT  34 1 

be  square,  rectangular,  circular,  or  of  irregular  dimensions. 
The  square  plot,  known  to  ecologists  as  the  "  quadrat,"  is  usually 
the  most  convenient.  If  the  sample  areas  are  a  quarter  of  an 
acre  or  larger,  one  or  more  small  square  plots  about  3  feet  or 
one  meter  in  size  are  estabhshed  within  the  larger  area  for 
detailed  mapping  of  the  vegetation.  The  information  afforded 
by  these  small  plots  supplements  the  more  general  data  relating 
to  the  larger  area.  The  main  plot  is  usually  blocked  off 
into  convenient  segments  and  the  vegetation  mapped  only  in  a 
general  way.  Such  general  mapping  takes  into  account  (i) 
the  dominant  and  subdominant  species,  (2)  all  the  species  found 
on  the  selected  plot,  (3)  the  density  of  the  cover,  and  (4)  the 
grazing  capacity  of  the  plot  expressed  on  an  acreage  or  section- 
tract  basis  of  animal-unit  capacity.  The  forage-acre  equivalent 
may  be  used  to  advantage  if  desired.  The  detailed  mapping  is 
done,  with  variations,  according  to  the  quadrat  method  de- 
veloped by  Clements,  the  details  of  which  are  here  summar- 
ized under  the  various  headings  which  follow.^ 

Sample  plots  are  named  according  to  the  way  the  mapping 
is  done.  In  grazing  work,  the  chart  plot,  the  list  plot,  and 
the  denuded  or  depopulated  plot  are  used  most  extensively. 

Chart  Plot.  —  If  the  changes  in  the  vegetation  are  to  be 
noted  in  detail,  the  chart  plot  is  invaluable.  Here  ordinarily 
all  of  the  vegetation  within  the  plot  is  charted  in  situ,  but  in  less 
intensive  work  the  maps  show  only  the  species  of  primary  in- 
terest in  the  investigation  pursued.  If  all  the  vegetation  is  to 
be  located  in  position  on  the  map,  as  shown  in  Figure  123,  the 
standard  size  of  quadrat,  namely,  the  meter-square  area,  is 
commonly  used. 

A  distinct  disadvantage  in  the  extensive  use  of  chart  plots  is 
the  great  amount  of  tedious  work  involved  in  the  mapping  and 
in  the  subsequent  crystallization  of  the  data  recorded.  For 
this  reason  the  regular  chart  plot  is  less  popular  than  formerly, 
for  certain  other  short-cut  methods  have  been  developed  in 
grazing  studies  which  show  well  the  changes  in  the  vegetation. 

'  Clements,  Frederic  E.,  "Plant  Succession:  An  Analysis  of  the  Development  of 
Vegetation."     Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington,  Pub.  No.  242,  pp.  423-442, 1916. 


342 


RESEARCH   METHODS 


Mapping  Chart  Plot.  —  The  method  of  mapping  is  one  in 
which  specially  designed  tapes  are  used  to  divide  the  plot  into 
squares,   which,   in   the  meter  plot,   are   in  decimeters      The 


NWI     L  j    2 
I 


,  \^^  ^   '^A,^.  S^  "ri  ^"^\ 


6         7   J    8 


I  ''^   ^ 


'       %^^'-, 


^ 


10 


.  ?^¥ 


En 
^^,       Fn 


EnJtL    p       ^P 


Fig.  123.  — chart  PLOT,  ALL  OF  THE  VEGETATION  BEING  LOCATED  ON  THE  MAP 
TO   CORRESPOND   WITH   ITS  POSITION  ON  THE   SELECTED   AREA. 


P  —  Poa  pralensis. 
Pe  —  Penlstemon  procerus. 

A  —  Achillea  lanulosa. 

K  —  Triselum  spicatum. 

L  —  Lathyrus  leucanthus. 
Po  —  Polygonum  Douglasii. 

T  —  Leonlodon  taraxacum. 

E  —  Erixcron  efusus. 


B  —  Bursa  bursa-pasloris. 

C  —  Crepls  acuminata. 

D  —  Draba  catia. 

V  —  Viola  linmaefoUa. 

S  —  Sophia  incisa. 
An  —  Androsace  diffusa. 
Al  —  Alsiite  (spp.). 
En  —  Erigeron  divergens. 


vegetation  within  each  decimeter  is  mapped  on  a  reduced  scale 
of  approximately  i  to  5,  the  map  scale  depending  upon  the 
detail  desired.     In  the  mapping  of  permanent  chart  plots  the 


CHART  PLOT  343 

writer  has  found  it  convenient  more  recently  to  prepare  and  use 
a  special  map  form,  a  reproduction  of  which  is  shown  in  Figure 
126.  This  form  on  the  map  side  gives  the  number  of  the  plot, 
its  location,  the  date  of  estabhshment,  seasons  and  dates  when 
remapped,  and  the  species  with  their  map  symbols.  The  map  is 
so  ruled  off  that  each  square  corresponding  to  a  square  decimeter 
of  ground  surface  is  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  an  arrange- 
ment which  facilitates  the  location  of  the  plant  on  the  chart. 

The  reverse  side  of  the  map  form,  reproduced  in  Figure  124, 
provides  for  a  statement  of  the  specific  object  of  the  plot;  the 
size  of  the  plot;  the  character  of  the  site  and  the  vegetation; 
history  of  the  range  with  respect  to  grazing,  fires,  etc.,  including 
a  statement  of  its  present  use;  a  record  of  the  vigor  and  life 
history  (reproduction,  invasion,  and  establishment)  of  the 
vegetation;  and,  finally,  a  summary  of  the  quadrat  data,  space 
being  so  provided  for  the  segregation  of  the  plant  record  as  to 
make  it  readily  applicable  to  the  range  problem  under  investi- 
gation. 

Preliminary  to  charting  the  plot,  care  is  taken  to  lay  down 
properly  the  four  boundary  tapes,  that  is,  to  "  square  "  them 
up  and  secure  them  at  each  corner  by  using  surveyor's  pins 
extending  through  the  perforated  ends  of  the  tapes.  The  mat- 
ter of  permanent  staking  is  discussed  under  the  heading,  "  Special 
Sample-Plot  Guide  Tapes." 

After  the  four  boundary  tapes  are  properly  located  the  two 
cross  tapes  are  placed  in  position  and  held  there  by  means  of 
surveyor's  pins  through  the  end  holes  and  through  the  holes  at 
the  decimeter  intervals  of  the  boundary  tapes.  As  indicated  in 
Figure  123,  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the  chart  are  numbered 
from  left  to  right  and  the  side  lines  from  top  to  bottom.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  mapping  is  always  started  at  the  upper  left-hand 
corner  of  the  chart.  The  plants  found  in  the  first  decimeter 
square  of  the  plot  are  located*  on  the  map  by  means  of  symbols 
placed  in  the  corresponding  square  of  the  chart.  When  the 
first  decimeter  strip  has  been  mapped  the  upper  cross  tape  is 
moved  down  one  decimeter,  where  it  outlines  the  second  un- 
charted strip.     This  strip  is  now  charted  as  the  first  one  was, 


344 


RESEARCH  METHODS 


Specific  Object  of  Plot _ 

Size   of  Plot 

Character  of  Site: 

Exposure Slope  and  Aspect Elevation. 


Soil 


(Origin,  depth,  humus,  texture,  indication  of  erosion,  eto.) 

Soil  moisture  content  

(Spring)        (Summer)       (Autumn) 
Vegetation: 

Type Density Associated  species 

Predominating  species 

History  of  Plot: 

Past 

(Cut  over,  grazed,  burned,  etc.) 

Present 

(Protected  or  subject  to  grazing)   (Character  of  grazing  and 


class  of  stock) 
History  of  Range: 

Past 


(Grazing  season) 


(Cut  over,  grazed,  burned,  etc.) 


(Overgrazed,  undergrazed,  moderately  grazed) 


(Dates. of  Grazing)  (Methods  of  Handling  Stock) 

Vigor  and  Life  History  of  Vegetation: 

Growth  luxuriant  or  weak 

Period  of  growth  -  From... To 

Time  of  flower  stalk  production 

Time  of  seed  maturity : 

Size  of  seed  crop Viability 

Was  grazing  advantageous  or  disastrous  to  reproduction? 

Was  seed  planted  by  stock? Were  seedlings  destroyed? 


SUMMARY  OF  PLOT  DATA 


symbols 

Totals 

1 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Tot.als 

1 

Total  number  of  specimens 

Total  number  of  forage  specimens 

Total  number  of  unpalatable  specimens 

Total  number  of  species 

Total  number  of  forage  species 

Total  number  of  unpalatable  species 

Increase  in  tufts: Palatable  species; Unpalatable  species 

Per  cent  of  forage  specimens  

Per  cent  Increment  in  all  specimens 

Per  cent  increment  in  forage  specimens 

Per  cent  increment  in  unpalatable  specimens 

Per  cent  increment  in  tufts ■. , 

Increment  per  acre  based  upon  plot , 

Estimated  increase  in  carrying  capacity  based  upon  plot 

Fig.  124.  —REVERSE  SIDE  OF  SAMPLE-PLOT  FORM  USED  IN  CHARTING 
VEGETATION. 


CHART  PLOT 


345 


and  the  shifting  of  the  cross  tapes  is  continued  until  the  chart- 
ing of  the  quadrat  is  completed. 

Prior  to  mapping,  and  before  there  has  been  any  abnormal 
disturbance  of  the  vegetation,  a  photograph  should  be  taken  of 
the  plot.  For  purposes  of  future  comparison  it  is  highly  desir- 
able to  establish  the  exact  location  of  the  camera  and  the  direc- 
tion of  the  exposure.  This  is  done  by  placing  a  stake  at  the 
spot  where  the  camera  is  located  and  another  in  line  with  the 
angle  of  the  camera.  "  Position  "  photographs  have  proved  of 
much  value  in  comparative  studies  of  plots  observed  over  a 
period  of  years. 

The  Pantograph  for  Mapping  Chart  Plots.  —  The  immense 
amount  of  painstaking  work  involved  in  charting  the  vegetation 
in  exact  position  led  Hill  ^  to  apply  the  pantograph,  an  instru- 
ment formerly  considered  as  adapted  only  for  use  on  a  drafting 


Fir,,  i:-   THE  I' AXTOCRAPH  IN  USE  ON  A  CHART  PLOT. 

The  special  sample-plot  steel  Ruide  tapes  are  in  position,  and  the  plot  is  staked  at 

diagonally  opposite  corners. 

table,  to  the  mapping  of  vegetation  on  chart  plots.  The  results 
from  the  use  of  the  pantograph  are  highly  satisfactory  for  re- 
producing  the  outlines  of  tufts  of  vegetation  as  well  as  for 

'  Hill,  Robert  R.,  "Charting  Quadrats  with  a  Pantograph."     Ecology,  Vol.  i. 
No.  4,  pp.  270-273,  1920. 


346  RESEARCH  METHODS 

locating  individual  plants.  Figure  125  shows  the  Hill  panto- 
graph with  guide  and  division-plot  tapes  in  use  by  the  author. 

The  instrument  is  provided  with  arms  40  inches  long  and  set 
to  reduce  to  3^,  a  reduction  which,  when  it  is  applied  to  a 
meter-square  plot,  makes  a  map  scale  of  10.5  inches  on  a  side. 
A  substantial  table  about  20  inches  square,  mounted  on  a  pivot 
at  one  corner,  supports  the  map  and  receives  the  impression. 
The  instrument  is  supported  by  a  metal  leg  one  inch  high  with  a 
ball  roller,  this  being  so  attached  to  one  arm  that  the  arm  swings 
back  and  forth  across  the  table  when  the  instrument  is  in  use. 
Also,  for  the  short  tracing  needle  is  substituted  a  steel  needle 
10  inches  long  for  tracing  the  outHne  or  for  locating  the  vege- 
tation on  the  plot. 

The  designer  points  out  that  a  possible  disadvantage  in  the 
use  of  the  pantograph  is  that  the  services  of  two  persons  are 
necessary  to  chart  successfully.  One  of  these  should  be  fa- 
miliar with  the  flora  and  skilled  in  charting;  the  other  records 
the  symbols  of  each  species  and  handles  the  instrument.  Any 
disadvantage  arising  from  two  persons  working  together,  how- 
ever, appears  to  be  offset  by  the  increased  accuracy  and  speed 
secured. 

The  advantages  of  locating  the  vegetation  in  position  by 
means  of  the  pantograph  are  summarized  by  Hill  as  follows: 

1.  The  results  are  fully  as  accurate;  the  pantograph  will  record  as  accu- 
rately as  the  skill  of  the  operator  in  following  the  outline  of  plants  will  permit. 

2.  The  pantograph  can  be  used  with  entire  disregard  of  the  presence  of 
rocks  or  impenetrable  soil  —  factors  very  important  in  using  straps. 

3.  The  rank  growth  of  vegetation  is  even  less  of  an  obstacle  to  accuracy 
with  the  pantograph  than  it  is  with  the  strap  method,  because  the  foliage  can 
readily  be  held  with  one  hand  while  the  outline  of  the  plant  is  traced  with  the 
other.  WTiere  straps  are  used  the  rank  foliage  is  very  apt  to  prevent  the 
straps  from  lying  accurately  in  position. 

4.  The  work  can  be  done  more  rapidly  with  the  pantograph  and  with 
much  less  tedium.  (Two  persons,  only  one  of  whom  need  be  skilled,  can  chart 
fully  three  times  as  many  quadrats  with  the  pantograph  as  one  skilled  person 
can  chart  with  straps.) 

5.  The  pantograph  is  especially  efficient  in  locating  individual  seedlings  or 
one-stemmed  plants  and  in  tracing  the  outline  of  crowns  of  low  bushes. 


LIST  PLOT  347 

It  is  pointed  out  by  the  designer  that  the  instrument  needs 
some  refinement,  and  that  its  further  use  will  doubtless  suggest 
certain  minor  improvements. 

List  Plot.  —  This  form  of  plot  is  used  by  most  ecologists  merely 
to  procure  a  systematic  record  of  the  species  which  occur  within 
a  given  plant  unit.  Such  a  record  in  itself,  however,  affords 
little  data  of  value  upon  which  to  base  a  rational  and  judicious 
plan  of  pasture  study,  and  its  use  in  successional  and  distribu- 
tional studies  is  often  overestimated. 

In  the  more  recent  natural  reseeding  studies  the  writer  has 
made  a  new  apphcation  of  the  method  of  charting  which  has 
greatly  popularized  the  use  of  the  hst  plot.  The  method  em- 
ployed is  simply  a  combination  of  charting  and  listing. 

The  former  record  showing  the  exact  number  of  individual 
specimens  of  a  species  is  substituted  for  the  percentage  of  the 
cover  which  each  species  produces,  and  this  is  recorded  per  one 
one-hundredth  unit  of  the  plot,  as  indicated  in  Figure  126. 
Each  division  area  of  the  map  shows  the  species  occurring  within 
the  unit,  regardless  of  the  exact  location  of  the  plants,  and  in 
addition  the  percentage  of  cover  formed  by  each  species  and  the 
density  of  cover  within  each  unit.  For  example:  If  Polygonum 
Douglasii  composed  15  per  cent  of  the  cover  within  a  given  one- 
hundredth  unit  of  the  plot,  Stipa  minor  10  per  cent,  and  Bromus 
marginatus  5  per  cent,  the  vegetation  would  be  listed  as  P-15, 
S-io,  and  B-5,  respectively,  one  under  the  other.  In  the  upper 
right-hand  corner  of  the  unit  is  recorded  the  density  of  that 
unit.  Such  a  record  is  noted  for  each  unit  division  of  the  plot 
so  that  its  average  density  may  be  determined.  From  these 
facts  the  cover  may  be  expressed  in  terms  of  forage-acre  factor  — 
density  X  palatahility  of  the  cover. 

Some  of  the  advantages  in  the  use  of  the  list  plot  are  that 
the  mapping  can  be  done  in  about  one-fifth  of  the  time  required 
for  complete  "  location  "  charting;  that  the  plan  lessens  ma- 
terially the  work  required  in  summarizing  the  data;  and  that 
the  record  furnishes  the  additional  valuable  information  of  the 
actual  density  of  individual  species  and  of  the  plot  as  a  whole, 
factors  which  are  not  available  where  the  cover  is  charted  merely 
in  situ 


348 


RESEARCH  METHODS 


GREAT  BASIN  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  EPHRAIM,  UTAH 

Natural  Reseeding 

Protected  Plot  No.  4  Location:  Upper  Plot  on  Bear  Creek 

Established  September  16,  1916  Season  Remapped:  1921 

Mapped  by  H.  E.  Malmsten  and  M.  B.  Haman  Date:  Septemb'er  12,  1921 

Legend 
Symbol   Species   Symbol     Species     Symbol     Species 

A\....Achillea  lanulosa  Lr...Lepic/ium  ramosissimum  SI. Sophia  incisa 

Av....Agropyron  vio/aceum  L-f..-La'>auxia  flava  Od..Dxyria  digyna 

Lt...Leonivdon  faraxacum  Ca..-Chenopodium  album  Pd... Polygonum  Douglasii 

Ad...Androsace  diffusa  Bt..Bromus  fecforum  Af...As-ter  frondeus 


Pa 

..foiygonum  avicu/are   C...-Chaenacf 

(^Dens,iy2                   3                   4                   S 

sspp. 

6 

Pi-..Pseudoc/mopferus  Tidesfromii 
7                6               3              /O 

-V 

o 

Ti 

t''\ 

'i 

'1 

7,rs 

® 

B 

'S 

II 

" 

>-'*] 

r,fs 

II 

.05 

i,\' 

» 

SJ' 

a- 

«. 

d'" 

Ad 

i;j-" 

3' 

'A' 

z 

ks 

n'l 

■^ 

-f 

,« 

■if. 

7.^ 

m 

' 

^^n 

' 

sfi 

7A's 

* 

i1^ 

/ 

fr' 

»• 

^i 

SI 

^^ 

w 

if 

%\'0 

3 

i 

N 

V 

/ 

4 

V 

y 

6 

6 

7 

6 

Q 

9 

■\ 

n 

( 

) 

\ 

\ 

\ 

C 

'  1 

^ 

/ 

c 

\i 

Fig.  126.  —THE  LIST  PLOT. 
All  the  vegetation  occurring  thereon  is  charted. 


DENUDED  OR   DEPOPULATED   PLOTS  349 

The  same  design  of  sample-plot  tapes  is  used  in  the  listing 
plan  of  mapping  as  for  charting.  The  Hst  plot,  because  of  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  mapping  is  done,  is  usually  made  larger 
than  the  chart  plot,  an  additional  advantage  in  securing  rep- 
resentative conditions. 

Denuded  or  Depopulated  Plots.  —  The  most  rehable  means 
of  determining  the  rate  of  the  invasion  and  estabHshment  of 
vegetation  on  badly  depleted  range  is  to  locate  representative 
sample  plots  on  areas  that  have  been  quite  or  nearly  denuded  by 
foraging  animals.  Artificial  depopulation  of  sample  plots  has 
been  more  or  less  popular  with  students  of  range  revegetation 
in  determining  the  rate  of  invasion  of  species.  Data  as  to  the 
rate  of  the  invasion  and  estabHshment  on  artificially  denuded 
plots  may  furnish  some  information  relative  to  the  rate  at 
which  lands  denuded  by  grazing  may  be  built  up;  but  the  re- 
sults are  not  reliable,  because  of  the  absence  of  a  highly  influen- 
tial factor,  namely,  the  packing  of  the  soil.  The  heavy  packing 
of  the  soil  by  livestock,  especially  the  tramphng  when  the  soil 
is  wet,  has  a  profound  efifect  upon  revegetation.  Accordingly, 
in  the  natural  reestablishment  of  the  cover  on  denuded  areas 
those  depopulated  through  excessive  or  untimely  grazing  should 
be  selected  for  study. 

The  value  of  the  artificially  denuded  plot  in  revegetational 
work  lies  chiefly  in  its  use  for  determining  the  viabiHty  of  the 
seed  of  native  vegetation.  Here  the  meter  quadrat  is  valuable. 
Following  the  artificial  removal  of  the  vegetation,  regular 
quadrat  tapes  one  meter  in  length,  marked  off  at  decimeter 
intervals,  are  laid  down;  then  a  seed  is  placed  at  each  deci- 
meter interval,  and,  if  desired,  also  midway  between  the  inter- 
vals, making  100  or  200  seeds  to  the  quadrat  according  to  the 
spacing.  The  following  spring  the  plot  tapes  are  replaced,  and 
the  results  of  the  germination  recorded.  This  method  of  de- 
termining seed  viability  is  valuable  for  use  on  high  mountain 
range  where  little  is  known  of  the  temperature  requirements 
and  certain  other  physical  stimuh  for  normal  seed  germination.^ 

1  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "The  Quadrat  Method  as  Applied  to  Investigations  in 
Forestry."     Forest  Club  Annual,  Univ.  of  Nebr.,  Vol.  6,  pp.  5,  6,  1915. 


350 


RESEARCH  METHODS 


SPECIAL   SAMPLE-PLOT   GUIDE   TAPES  351 

Other  Plots.  —  Strip  plots,  known  as  transects  and  bisects, 
are  sometimes  used  to  advantage  in  revegetation  studies.  A 
transect  is  merely  a  narrow,  much-elongated  sample  plot; 
whereas,  a  bisect,  also  much  elongated,  aims  to  show  the  ver- 
tical relation  or  cross-section,  as  it  were,  of  associated  plants, 
the  underground  parts  as  well  as  the  aerial  growth  often  being 
shown  (Fig.  127).  The  width  of  the  bisect,  like  that  of  the 
transect,  is  never  great,  varying  from  a  mere  line  to  a  few  inches. 
The  advantage  in  the  use  of  transects  and  bisects  lies  in  the 
fact  that  they  may  run  from  one  plant  community  or  society 
into  another,  or  from  one  exposure  or  gradient  into  quite  a 
different  one. 

The  mapping  of  the  transect  or  bisect  is  done  much  the  same 
as  that  of  a  chart  plot.  Special  tapes  of  varying  length,  con- 
veniently segregated,  are  used.  Because  of  the  great  length  of 
the  average  "  belt  "  transect,  that  is,  one  whose  width  is  more 
than  that  of  a  mere  line,  it  is  most  convenient  to  map  the  vege- 
tation in  strips  or  segments  on  the  same  sheet.  These  strips 
appear  on  the  chart  at  regular  intervals,  the  first  one  being  placed 
to  the  extreme  left  on  the  sheet  and  running  from  top  to  bottom, 
the  second  to  the  right  of  the  first,  the  third  to  the  right  of  the 
second,  and  so  on. 

Special  Sample-Plot  Guide  Tapes.  —  Accurately  constructed 
and  otherwise  satisfactory  plot  guide  tapes  are  not  obtainable  on 
the  market.  Accordingly  special  metal  tapes  have  been  devised.^ 
Although  the  sketch  (Fig.  128)  is  designed  on  the  basis  of  a 
meter  unit,  any  length  desired  may  be  made  up  according  to 
the  following  description.  Inches  and  feet  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  metric  scale. 

Each  set  consists  of  four  boundary  tapes,  as  shown  by  "  A," 
and  two  di\dsion  tapes,  as  shown  by  "  B."  The  boundary  tapes 
are  13  millimeters  wide,  and  their  total  length  is  1.113  meters. 
A  satisfactory  thickness  of  material  is  approximately  .025  of  an 
inch,  as  that  weight  affords  the  convenience  of  rolling  up  the 
tapes  for  transportation.     To  insure  ample  strength  for  much 

*  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "The  Quadrat  Method  as  Applied  to  Investigations  in 
Forestry."     Forest  Club  Annual,  Univ.  of  Nebr.,  Vol.  6,  pp.  7-10,  1915. 


352  RESEARCH  METHODS 

longer  tapes,  it  is  best  to  use  a  somewhat  greater  \vidth  and 
thickness. 

The  first  perforation  of  each  boundary  tape  is  5  centimeters 
from  the  end  of  the  strap,  as  shown  in  the  sketch,  the  diameter 
being  5  milHmeters,  a  size  large  enough  to  permit  the  insertion 
of  an  ordinary  surveying  pin.     The  boundary  tapes  are  of  such 


(^ 


BOUNDARY  STRAP- A 


lTll3-meters- 


DIVISrON  STRAP-B 


'%^^ 


n-^ 


M- 


BOUNDARY  PLOT  AND  DIVISION  TAPES  OF  SPECIAL  DESIGN  ADAPTED 
TO  THE  MAPPING  OF  PASTURE   VEGETATION. 


a  length  that  there  is  no  overlapping  of  the  tape  itself  upon  the 
meter-square  area,  a  space  that  is  disregarded  in  mapping  when 
the  originally  designed  tapes  are  used.  Accordingly,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  first  and  the  second  perforation  is  1.065 
decimeters.  At  each  succeeding  decimeter  a  similar  perforation 
appears,  marking  off  a  total  of  exactly  10  decimeters  on  each 
side.  To  facilitate  mapping,  each  decimeter  space  carries  a 
number  plainly  stamped  midway  between  each  two  decimeter 
division  marks. 

The  two  division  straps  labeled  "  B  "  are  9  millimeters  wide 
and  1.033  meters  long.  These  tapes  also  are  marked  off  into 
decimeter  lengths,  and  the  intervals  are  numbered  to  corre- 
spond with  the  markings  on  the  boundary  tapes.  Both  bound- 
ary and  division  tapes  are  made  of  flexible,  noncorrosive,  non- 
reflecting  steel  or  other  substantial  material  whose  contraction 
and  expansion  is  slight.  In  addition  to  the  matter  of  meas- 
uring off  an  exact  unit  area,  these  tapes  have  an  advantage  over 
those  ordinarily  used  in  that  there  is  an  extension  of  5  centimeters 
from  the  last  perforation  to  the  end  of  the  boundary  tape.     This 


SPECIAL   SAMPLE-PLOT   GUIDE  TAPES  353 

extension  greatly  facilitates  the  accurate  placing  of  the  corner 
stakes,  marking  the  location  and  exact  position  of  the  plot,  as 
the  intersection  and  extension  of  the  tapes  indicate  precisely 
where  the  boundary  stakes  should  be  located.     The  exact  lo- 

Wooden  Stake 
5cm/   Iron  Peg  .Scm 

gj^rfr ^i-™"" +H 


DQ 


Fig.  129.  — a  satisfactory  AND  INEXPENSIVE  PLAN  OF  STAKING  PERMANENT 

SAMPLE   PLOTS. 

Iron  pegs  and  wooden  stakes  are  used. 

cation  of  the  boundary  stakes  is  most  important  in  placing 
the  guide  tapes  for  accurate  future  mapping. 

Nothing  should  be  left  undone  with  respect  to  the  accurate  lo- 
cation of  permanent  sample  plots.  Obviously  wooden  stakes  are 
not  permanent.  Frequently  investigators  fail  to  locate  small 
plots,  because  the  wooden  boundary  stakes  have  been  destroyed 


354 


RESEARCH  METHODS 


by  fires  or  ruthless  campers,  or  in  some  other  way.  A  care- 
fully selected  and  mapped  plot  is  a  good  financial  investment, 
and.  more  important  still,  has  scientific  and  practical  value 
hardly  to  be  estimated  in  a  pecuniary  way.  An  accurate  and 
inexpensive  method  of  permanent  staking  of  sample  plots  is 
shown  in  Figure  129.  The  metallic  pegs,  which  are  approxi- 
mately 12  inches  long  and  one  inch  in  diameter,  are  driven  at 
the  corner  intersections  of  the  guide  tapes,  which  determine  the 
corner  locations.  Only  two  iron  pegs,  located  at  diagonally  op- 
posite corners,  one  corner  being  that  from  which  the  mapping  was 
started,  are  required.  They  are  driven  securely  into  the  ground 
so  that  only  about  2  inches  protrudes.  As  the  ends  of  the 
protruding  iron  pegs  are  blunt,  grazing  animals  will  not  be 
injured  should  they  chance  to  step  on  them.  In  order  to  fa- 
cilitate ready  location  of  the  plot,  stakes  made  from  the  most 
durable  wood  available,  about  16  inches  long  and  2  inches  in 
diameter,  are  driven  close  to  the  metallic  pegs.  The  wooden 
stakes  carry  the  number  of  the  quadrat,  and  the  label  is  stamped 
on  the  stake  located  at  the  corner  where  the  mapping  is  started. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  the  location  of  the 
quadrat  should  be  shown  on  as  good  a  topographic  or  drainage 
map  as  is  available;  in  addition,  it  should  be  carefully  tied  in 
to  a  section  or  a  quarter-section  corner,  or  to  some  natural  per- 
manent obstacle. 

Season  and  Frequency  of  Mapping.  —  On  closely  utilized 
range  it  is  important,  where  possible,  to  map  the  vegetation 
prior  to  grazing.  This  is  not  always  convenient,  because  of  the 
difficulty  of  identifying  species  which  are  neither  in  flower  nor 
seed.  If  mapping  is  done  after  the  range  has  been  grazed,  one 
finds  not  only  that  it  is  difl&cult  to  determine  the  identity  of  the 
plants,  but  that  the  disturbance  by  stock  has  tended  to  obscure 
the  presence  of  seedlings  and  other  readily  injured  and  incon- 
spicuous vegetation.  Ob\dously  the  best  time  to  do  the  mapping 
is  when  the  vegetation  has  reached  its  maximum  luxuriance  of 
growth.  On  high  mountain  range  August  is  the  best  month; 
in  the  foothill  regions  July  is  best;  and  in  the  plains  region  June 
is  the  most  desirable. 


PROTECTION  PLOTS  355 

The  interval  between  mappings  of  permanent  plots  will 
vary  greatly  according  to  (i)  the  region,  elevation,  and  cli- 
matic conditions,  (2)  the  type  of  vegetation,  and  (3)  the  specific 
object  for  which  the  plot  was  established.  In  humid  and  semi- 
humid  regions  the  changes  in  the  cover  are  rapid  and  con- 
spicuous, and,  in  order  to  procure  a  record  of  the  more  im- 
portant successional  stages,  it  is  best  to  do  the  mapping  every 
two  years.  On  desert  range  or  on  other  lands  where  the  pre- 
cipitation is  low  and  the  invasion  and  establishment  of  most 
of  the  vegetation  is  not  rapid,  mapping  at  intervals  of  about 
five  years  is  sufficient  for  practical  pasture  studies.  On  high 
mountain  range  where  the  precipitation  received  is  from  30  to 
40  inches  per  annum,  the  mapping  should  be  done  at  three-year 
intervals.  Where  a  detailed  study  of  invasion  was  being  con- 
ducted the  author  has  sometimes  found  it  necessary  to  remap  as 
many  as  three  times  in  a  season.  In  order  to  obtain  the  refine- 
ment of  data  ordinarily  required,  it  is  not  necessary  to  map  more 
than  once  in  two  or  three  years. 

Protection  Plots.  —  Where  the  water  supply  is  ample  the 
demand  for  forage,  as,  for  example,  on  most  of  the  National 
Forest  ranges,  is  often  so  great  that  every  little  nook  is  grazed 
to  its  maximum  capacity  each  year,  and  no  part  of  the  area  is 
left  to  develop  a  maximum  cover.  In  the  study  of  revegetation 
it  is  of  high  importance  to  know  the  maximum  density  of  stand 
under  ideal  conditions  and  the  species  of  plants  that  the  soil  will 
support.  Without  these  facts  no  standard  of  pasture  use  is 
available. 

Generally  the  most  valuable  pasture  lands  for  cattle  and 
horses  arc  those  upon  which  palatable  grasses  high  in  the  stage 
of  development  have  been  preserved.  The  best  land  for  the 
grazing  of  sheep,  on  the  other  hand,  the  type  which  will  produce 
the  greatest  possible  amount  of  mutton,  is  that  upon  which  the 
grass  cover  has  been  opened  up  and  the  growth  of  a  goodly  ad- 
mixture of  grasses,  weeds,  and  even  browse  has  been  encour- 
aged.^ 

'  Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  "Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Management." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  791,  pp.  20-22,  1919. 


356  RESEARCH   METHODS 

A  reliable  method  of  determining  maximum  forage  production 
and  the  composition  of  such  a  cover  in  its  highest  stages  of 
development  is  by  means  of  protection  plots.  For  purposes  of 
comparison  a  plot  corresponding  with  that  of  the  protected  area 
may  be  established  on  the  open  or  grazed  range.  A  plot  t,^ 
feet  on  a  side,  enclosing  one-fortieth  of  an  acre,  has  been  found 
satisfactory.  The  plot  is  divided  into  four  equal  squares  by 
means  of  division  tapes,  the  regular  sample-plot  form  as  shown 
in  Figure  130  being  used.  In  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of 
each  of  the  four  squares  is  given  the  density  of  the  vegetation, 
and,  following  it,  the  species  occurring  on  the  plot  as  a  whole  are 
recorded  and  given  convenient  symbols  for  charting.  The 
percentages  of  the  respective  species  which  make  up  the  den- 
sity of  the  square  unit  are  then  recorded,  and  the  palatability 
of  each  for  cattle  and  for  sheep  is  noted.  The  percentage  of  each 
species,  multiplied  by  its  percentage  of  palatability  for  each  class 
of  stock,  gives  the  percentage  of  palatable  forage  for  that  species. 
When  the  total  of  the  percentage  of  palatable  forage  of  all 
species  is  multiplied  by  the  density  of  the  cover  of  the  unit,  the 
forage-acre  factor  is  derived.  In  the  example  given  the  data 
are  shown  only  for  one  of  the  four  units.  The  forage-acre 
factor  for  the  entire  area  is  obtained  by  averaging  this  factor 
for  the  plot  as  a  whole.  The  vegetation  on  the  unprotected 
plots  is  recorded  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  example  given. 

Sample-Plot  Dimensions.  —  In  field  work  generally  it  is 
convenient,  in  the  establishment  both  of  square  and  circular 
plots,  and  for  other  purposes,  to  know  the  dimension  require- 
ments for  an  acre  or  a  fraction  thereof.  As  a  guide  for  the 
establishment  of  sample  plots  and  for  general  pasture-inspection 
work  the  following  dimensions  for  an  acre  or  less  are  given: 


Square  Areas 


Feet  on  a  side  Ac 

208 .7    

147  6 

104  35 

66.0   

52.17 

46.6   

350   


Feet  on  a  side  Acre 

29- 5    =  sV 


87 =  rh 

75 =  sffTj 

43 =  TTjff 

6     =   TUSH 

67 =   5?75TJ 

3   =  ?cff?j 


PROTECTION  PLOTS 


357 


GREAT  BASIN  EXPERIHteNT  STATION,   EPHRAIM,    UTAH 

Natural  Reseeding 

Unprotected  Plot  No  7  Location:   Near  Experiment  Station 

Established  August  21,    1916  Season  Recharted:    1921 

Mapped  ty  A.    W.    Sampson  and  H,   E.   Malmsten  Pate:   Aug.    16,   1921 

Legend 
Symbol     Species         Symbol         Species         Symbol  Species 

A.A^ropyron  fenerum         V^.Vicia  Americana  G...Geranium  f^ichardsonii 

R..Folygonum  Douglasii       ALAchillea  lanulosa       S^.SHpa  minor 
L-.Leoniodon  taraxacum   C...Chenopoclium  album  SiSophia  incisa 


Averages  for  Plot:  Density ,■  Palafabilify  for  C — ,S — ;  Forage  acre Facfor  for  C—.S— 

1 

Pal, 

t^b 

lify 

Palaf, 

Me/ 

,ra^e 

.4- 

Cover 

Cattle 
1' 

=?' 

Cattle 

i 

r 

2 

5 

20 
ZO 

35 
SO 

70 
IS 

IS.O 
18.0 

14.0 
IS.O 

Al 
G 

13 

60 

ZO 

SO 
60 

lo.a 

Z.6 

I6.Z 
7.8 

'Q 

P 

C 

10 
8 

ZO 

zs 

60 
80 

z.o 

ZO 

6.0 
6.4 

Si 

L 

7 

Z 

ZO 
60 

60 
90 

1.4 
I.Z 

S.6 

V 

Total 

y 

90 

100 

/.a 
sa.a 

2.0 

4 

100 

74.6 

Dei 
For, 

sity 

f'^l 

•alata 

ble  F 
■for 

.rage 
7attle 

(SdS^ 

=^.a 

-J 

S 

S3. 

•r.A 

Faci 

orfc 

rShi 

ep 

6 

7 

6 

9 

10 

Fig.  130. -a  33-FOOT  PLOT,   DIVIDED  INTO  FOUR  EQUAL  PARTS. 
The  plant  cover,  following  each  mapping,  is  expressed  in  terms  of  the  "forage-acre  factor"  for 


the  class  or  classes  of  stock  grazed, 
natural  revegetation. 


This  form  of  plot  is  very  valuable  in    the   study  of 


358  RESEARCH  METHODS 


Circular  Areas 

1  radius 

Acre  circle 

Fee/  ea;ac<  radius 

118 

=  I 

117. 7 

83 

=  h 

83.2 

59 

=  \ 

58.8 

37 

=    T5 

37-2 

12 

=  tJ. 

II. 7 

Sample  plots  33  feet  on  a  side,  embracing  one-fortieth  of  an 
acre,  are  favored  by  the  writer.  If  the  area  is  fenced  against 
stock,  the  fence  line  should  be  at  least  40  feet  on  a  side  in  order 
to  prevent  animals  from  snatching  vegetation  from  the  plot 
proper.  Woven  wire  is  the  best  material  to  use  for  fencing, 
as  it  permits  full  play  of  the  climatic  factors  over  the  plot. 
Board  fences,  especially  if  the  boards  are  placed  close  together, 
are  the  least  satisfactory. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  it  important  to  know  the  developmental  trend  of  pasture  vege- 
tation, and  what  is  the  value  of  sample  plots  in  determining  such  facts? 

2.  What  kinds  of  sample  plots  are  used  in  grazing  studies? 

3.  (o)  What  is  the  chart  plot,  and  how  is  the  mapping  of  such  a  plot 
done?     {b)  Discuss  the  disadvantages,  if  any,  in  the  use  of  the  chart  plot. 

4.  What  is  a  pantograph,  and  how  is  it  used  in  sample-plot  studies? 

5.  How  does  the  list  plot  differ  from  the  chart  plot,  and  what  are  some  of 
the  merits  of  the  Hst  plot? 

6.  Discuss  the  place  of  denuded  or  depopulated  plots  in  natural  revegetation. 

7.  {a)  What  use  is  made  of  (i)  the  transect,  and  (2)  the  bisect  in  revegeta- 
tional  studies?     ib)  How  is  the  vegetation  in  a  transect  mapped? 

8.  Describe  the  design  of  special  sample-plot  guide  tapes  and  discuss  their 
Jierits. 

9.  (a)  How  often  should  sample  plots  be  remapped  under  the  different 
conditions?     {b)  At  what  time  in  the  season  should  the  mapping  be  done? 

10.  (a)  What  is  the  value  of  protection  plots  on  pasture  lands?  {b)  How 
may  the  vegetation  within  protection  plots  be  mapped  to  show  clearly  the 
improvement  or  decline  in  the  forage  cover? 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  359 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bates,  Carlos  G.,  and  Zon,  Raphael.    Research  Methods  in  the  Study 
of  Forest  Environment.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  BuL  1059,  1922. 

Clements,  Frederic  E.     Plant  Indicators:   The  Relation  of  Plant  Com- 
munities to  Processes  and  Practice.     Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash., 
Pub.  No.  290,  1920. 
Research  Methods  in  Ecology.     Univ.  Pub.  Co.,  Lincoln,  Neb.,  1905, 

Hill,  Robert  R.     Charting  Quadrats  with  a  Pantograph.    Ecology,  Vol.  i. 
No.  4,  1920. 

Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  Mark.     Range  Management  on  the 
National  Forests.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  1919. 

Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Hurtt,  Leon  C.     Increased  Cattle  Production  on 
Southwestern  Ranges.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  588,  1917. 

Mosher,  Edna.     The  Grasses  of  Illinois.     Univ.  of  111.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Bui.  205,  1918. 

Sampson,  Arthur  W.     Climate  and  Plant  Growth  in  Certain  Vegetative 
Associations.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  700,  1918, 
Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Management.     U.  S.  Dept.  of 

Agr.  Bui.  791,  1919. 
The  Quadrat  Method  as  Applied  to  Investigations  in  Forestry.     Forest 
Club  Annual,  Univ.  of  Nebr.,  Vol.  6,  191 5. 

WOOTON,  E.  O.     Carrying  Capacity  of  Grazing  Ranges  in  Southern  Ari- 
zona.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  367,  1916. 
Factors  Affecting  Range  Management  in  New  Mexico.     U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.  Bui.  211,  1915. 


CHAPTER  XrX 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  INSTRUCTION  IN  PASTURE  MAN- 
AGEMENT  AND   LIVESTOCK   PRODUCTION 

Improved  methods  of  handling  pasture  lands  and  foraging 
animals  have  been  somewhat  widely  adopted  by  stockmen  in  this 
country  during  recent  years.  Although  the  stockmen  them- 
selves deserve  much  credit  for  this  advancement,  the  leadership 
in  the  discovery  and  appHcation  of  fundamental  principles  in  this 
field  clearly  devolves  upon  the  college- trained  investigators  of 
pasture  problems.  The  agriculturalist  who  succeeds  must  be 
trained  in  all  the  major  lines  of  rural  activities.  Agricultural 
colleges,  including  forest  schools,  are  making  serious  efforts  to 
meet  the  new  requirements.  It  is  only  recently,  however,  that 
some  of  the  colleges  have  undertaken  to  offer  instruction  in 
pasture  and  livestock  management. 

Probably  no  single  agricultural  activity  exercises  so  profound 
and  immediate  an  influence  upon  our  people  as  that  of  pasture 
livestock  production.  In  view  of  the  importance  of  the  subject 
itself,  as  well  as  its  relation  to  all  other  phases  of  agriculture,  it 
is  surprising  that  thorough  instruction  in  the  management  of 
pasture  and  foraging  animals  has  not  long  since  been  included  in 
the  curricula  of  the  leading  agricultural  colleges  and  especially 
of  forest  schools.  Forestry  in  this  country  is  so  closely  connected 
with  forage  production  and  livestock  handhng  that  it  is  necessary 
for  the  professional  forester  to  understand  the  handhng  of  stock 
on  woodlands.  Failure  to  include  grazing  courses  in  the  curric- 
ula of  agricultural  colleges,  especially  in  the  West,  is  no  doubt 
largely  accounted  for  by  two  conditions  —  the  rapid  develop- 
ment in  recent  years  in  the  science  of  pasture  and  livestock 
handling,  and  the  lack  of  textbooks  on  the  subject  as  a  whole. 

In  preparing  a  syllabus  for  grazing  courses  the  author  has  aimed 
to  cover  the  field  for  two  classes  of  men  —  first,  the  grazing 
360 


COURSES   FOR   STUDENTS  OF   GRAZING  36 1 

experts,  and,  second,  the  widely  trained  agriculturalists  and  pro- 
fessional foresters.  The  grazing  expert  naturally  would  be 
expected  to  cover  in  detail  the  entire  field  of  study  here  outUned, 
but  the  general  student  of  agriculture  and  the  forest  expert 
would  pursue  only  such  broad  grazing  subjects  as  will  be 
mentioned  later. 

The  educational  requirements  for  professional  training  in 
pasture  and  livestock  management  should  be  equal  to  those  for 
other  scientific  professions.  This  implies  thorough  training  in 
auxiliary  subjects.  The  following  schedule  of  auxihary  subjects, 
including  a  statement  of  their  application  to  the  management  of 
pasture  lands,  has  been  proposed:  ^ 

Subject  Application 

Botany General  management  of  all  forage  resources. 

Taxonomy Recognition  of  important,   objectionable,   and 

unimportant  range  plants. 
Morphology    (internal        Structure  pertinent  to  the  forage  value  of  plants 
and  external)  and  to  revegetation. 

Physiology Response  of  growth  and  functions  of  plants  to 

annual  cropping. 

Ecology Relation  of  invasions  and  successions  to  range 

management. 

Plant  pathology Control  of  parasitic  diseases  inimical  to  forage 

production. 
Zoology General  conception  of  animal  life,  animal  rela- 
tionship, and  zoo-dynamics  fundamentally  es- 
sential to  the  study  of  entomology,  veterinary 
science,  etc. 

Bacteriology The  application  of  soil  flora  to  soil  fertility  and 

crop  production. 
Entomology Classification  and  life  history  of  insects,  espe- 
cially as  related  to  the  genera  and  species  de- 
structive to  forage  plants. 

Chemistry Constituents  of  plants  and  animals;  comparative 

nutritive  qualities  of  forage  plants  and  con- 
centrates; soil-fertility  requirements. 
Geology  (including  soUs)  .  .  .   Relation  of  soils  to  intensity  of  grazing,  revege- 
tation, erosion,  etc. 

1  Sampson,  .\rthur  W.,  "Suggestions  for  Instruction  in  Range  Management." 
Jour,  of  Forestry,  Vol.  17,  No.  5,  pp.  526-528,  May,  1919. 


362  PASTURE  MANAGEMENT  AND  LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

Animal  husbandry Comparative  value  of  feeds,  computing  rations, 

and  suitability  of  the  different  breeds  of  live- 
stock to  the  various  conditions. 

Genetics •  •  Improvement  in  animals  and  plants  through  the 

application  and  control  of  the  laws  of  heredity. 

Veterinary  science Control  of  diseases  of  domestic  (range)  stock; 

surgery  in  connection  with  livestock  pro- 
duction. 

CivU  engineering Fundamentals  of  surveying,  map-making,  and 

typing  as  related  to  range  use  and  manage- 
ment. 

Meteorology Climatic  phenomena  in  relation  to  crop  produc- 
tion; climatic  forecasts  and  climatic  cycles. 

Botany  probably  has  the  widest  possibihties  of  appHcation. 
This  subject  should  include  a  study  of  the  five  subdivisions 
indicated,  and  these  should  be  preceded  by  at  least  one  year's 
study  of  general  (college)  botany.  A  knowledge  of  botany  is 
sure  to  have  a  telling  effect  ultimately  on  forage  production  and 
hence  upon  the  hvestock  industry,  for  the  further  development 
and  stabilization  of  the  industry  is  absolutely  dependent  upon 
an  adequate  and  permanent  supply  of  choice  forage.  Recogni- 
tion of  the  identity  of  range  species,  their  internal  or  external 
morphology,  the  laws  that  control  the  functions  of  growth  and 
reproduction,  and  the  ecological  requirements  of  the  different 
forage  types  is  sure  to  affect  the  future  production  of  pasture 
lands.  Any  plan  of  range  management  which  aims  to  improve 
the  carrying  capacity  of  pastures  must  be  based  upon  the  funda- 
mentals of  botanical  science. 

Following  the  general  instruction  in  zoology,  a  special  course 
should  be  given  in  the  history  of  the  development  of  domestic 
livestock.  Such  a  course  should  aim  also  to  cover  in  detail 
the  history  of  development,  relationships,  distribution,  and  life 
history  of  the  more  common  predatory  and  game  animals. 

The  general  grounding  in  entomology  should  be  followed  by  a 
special  course  in  applied  entomology,  and  should  consider  the 
identity  and  life  history  of  the  genera  and  species  of  insects  that 
are  commonly  detrimental  to  forage  and  beef  production. 
Special  consideration  should  be  given  to  such  troublesome  insects, 
for  instance,  as  the  botfly  and  to  ticks  that  prey  on  stock. 


COURSES  FOR   STUDENTS  OF  GRAZING  363 

Following  the  general  course  in  chemistry,  which  should 
include  qualitative  and  quantitative  analytical  and  organic  work, 
a  special  course  should  be  given  in  the  determination  of  the 
chemical  constituents  of  feeds  and  forage  crops.  While  it  should 
not  be  the  aim  to  make  of  the  student  a  full-fledged  chemist,  a 
course  covering,  let  us  say,  one  credit  unit  through  a  semester 
would  suffice  to  familiarize  him  with  the  methods  employed  in 
making  analyses  of  feeds  and  the  preparation  of  forage  samples 
for  analysis. 

The  course  in  animal  husbandry  —  genetics  and  veterinary 
science  —  should  aim  to  offer  special  work  in  the  application  of 
principles  to  improve  livestock  production.  In  animal  hus- 
bandry, for  instance,  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  the  different  breeds  of  livestock  as  related  to  cli- 
mate, the  temperament  of  different  breeds  of  stock  as  affecting 
their  relative  adaptability  on  the  range,  maintenance-ration  re- 
quirements of  animals,  and  the  suitability  of  different  kinds  of 
concentrate  feeds  in  the  different  localities,  etc.  The  apphed 
work  in  genetics  should  consider  especially  the  question  of 
breeding  as  related  to  the  creation  of  improved  strains  of  Uve- 
stock,  such,  for  instance,  as  cross-breeding  in  the  development 
of  the  mutton  type  of  sheep,  the  wool  type,  and  the  combined 
mutton  and  wool  type.  Likewise  the  study  of  veterinary 
science  should  include  a  consideration  of  the  life  history  and  con- 
trol of  diseases  common  to  livestock  on  the  range. 

Obviously  a  thoroughgoing  course  in  civil  engineering,  includ- 
ing mechanical  drawing,  is  of  paramount  importance  to  the  range 
technician. 

The  meteorological  work  should  consider  the  vegetative  types 
and  the  chief  crop-producing  areas  of  the  United  States,  followed 
by  a  study  of  the  normal  temperatures  and  of  the  precipitation 
of  these  areas,  taking  into  account  the  barriers  and  the  general 
trend  of  the  high  and  low  pressure  phenomena  and  their  relation 
to  precipitation.  Consideration  should  be  given  to  the  study 
of  weather  forecasts  and  to  climatic  cycles,  so  far  as  they  influ- 
ence forage  and  livestock  production,  and  to  the  recording  and 
assembhng  of  climatic  data,  especially  with  reference  to  deter- 


364    PASTURE   MANAGEMENT  AND   LIVESTOCK   PRODUCTION 

mining  the  relation  of  climatic  factors  to  plant  growth  and 
livestock  production.  It  would  probably  not  be  necessary  to 
offer  a  special  course  in  meteorology,  as  this  work  could  be  given 
either  in  connection  with  the  study  of  plant  ecology  or  some 
related  subject. 

OUTLINE  OF  GRAZING  COURSE 

Condensed  Outline  Suggested  for  Practical  and  Professional 
Instruction  in  Pasture  and  Livestock  Management 

I.  Introductory. 

1.  Range  and  pasture  management  defined;    its  object 
and  scope. 

2.  Need    for  improved  handling   of  pasture   lands  and 
pasture  stock. 

3.  Demand  for  trained  range  and  pasture  technicians. 

II.  Range  History  and  Livestock  Economics. 

1.  The  livestock  industry  in  relation  to  agriculture  and 
forestry. 

A .  The  farm :  Economical  use  of  roughages  and  other 
feeds;  maintenance  of  soil  fertility;  diversified 
farming  vs.  specialized  agriculture. 

B.  The  ranch  (range). 

C.  PubHc  domain. 

D.  Woodland  pasture. 

a.  National  Forests. 

h.  Privately  owned  woodlots. 

c.  Unappropriated  lands. 

2.  Meat  production  and  consumption. 

A.  Production  of  the  world. 

B.  Production  in  the  United  States. 

a.  Eastern  and  Western  States. 
h.  The  twelve  chief  range  States. 

c.  Farms. 

d.  National  Forests. 

C.  Meat  consumption  by  different  nations. 


OUTLINE  OF  GRAZING  COURSE  365 

D.  Prospective  production,  with  special  reference  to 
the  future  of  the  range  industry  in  this  country. 

3.  Classification  of  pasture  lands  in  the  United  States. 

A.  Area. 

B.  Natural  divisions  and  characteristics  of  major 
geographical  units. 

a.  East. 
h.  South. 

c.  Middle  West. 

d.  West. 

(i)  Great  Plains. 

(2)  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

(3)  Great  Basin. 

(4)  Southwest. 

(5)  Pacific  slope. 

(6)  Northwest. 

4.  Development  of  the  range  industry. 

A.  Buffaloes  and  their  impress  on  the  range. 

B.  Wild  horses. 

C.  Other  native  herbivorous  animals. 

D.  Advent  of  domestic  foraging  animals. 

a.  Type  and  breed;  from  whence  introduced. 

E.  Factors  affecting  the  stocking. 

a.  Climate;  accessibility  of  the  lands  to  graz- 
ing;  character  of  forage;   water,  etc. 

F.  The  lands  occupied  by  different  classes  of  stock. 

G.  Center  of  livestock  production  at  various  periods. 

5.   Overgrazing  and  results. 

A .  When  and  where  most  serious. 

B.  Results. 

a.  Sharp  decline  in  forage. 

b.  Decreased  animal  production  and  financial 
failures. 

(i)  Competition  for  range. 
(A)  Range  wars. 

c.  Adoption  of  land  grants  and  leasing  systems. 

d.  Creation  of  National  Forests. 


366  PASTURE  MANAGEMENT  AND  LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

6.   National  Forest,  State,  and  private  grazing  lands. 

A.  National  Forests. 

a.  Conditions  which  led  to  their  creation. 

b.  Present  area  and  character  of  land. 

c.  Number  and  classes  of  livestock  grazed. 

d.  Pohcy  of  administration. 

(i)  Early  policy. 

(2)  Present  policy. 

(A)  Grazing  privilege  vs.  property 
rights. 

(B)  The  grazing  permit. 

(3)  Policy  in  other  countries. 

e.  Function  and  results  of  the  Forest  Service 
in  regulating  grazing. 

/.  Results  of  regulated  grazing. 

(i)  Improvement  in  grazing  capacity, 
1905-1922. 

(2)  Administration  responsible  for  im- 
provement. 

B.  State  and  private  lands. 

a.  Policy  leading  to  acquisition  of  land  grants. 

b.  Texas  leasing  system. 

c.  Wyoming  leasing  system. 

d.  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  leases. 

e.  Other  leasing  systems. 

/.  Results  of  leasing  systems. 

g.  Disposition  of  land-grant  areas. 

III.    Native  Pasture  Plants. 

I.  Forage  plants. 

A.  Forage-growth  requirements. 

a.  Characteristics  of  a  good  forage  plant. 

(i)  Growth  habits  and  growth  require- 
ments. 

b.  Life-history   studies   and    their   significance 
in  forage  increment. 


OUTLINE   OF   GRAZING   COURSE  367 

(i)  Regeneration. 

(A)  Seed  (seed  habits). 

(B)  Vegetative  (asexual). 
c.  Feeding  value. 

(i)  Character   of   herbage,    yield,   pala- 
tability,    nutritiousness,    and    acces- 
sibility. 
B.  Forage  preferences  of  different  classes  of  live- 
stock. 
a.  Cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  goats. 

Native  grasses. 

A.  Uses. 

B.  Distinctions  between  true  grasses  and  grasslike 
plants. 

a.  Carex,  Juncus,  etc. 

C.  Grass  family. 

a.  Importance  in  forage  production. 
h.  Tribes   embracing   most   important   forage 
species. 

D.  Wheat  and  barley  grass  tribe  (Hordeae). 

a.  Wheatgrasses  (Agropyron). 

(i)  Description    and    distribution    (gen- 
eral) . 

(2)  Economic  value  (general). 

(3)  Important  species  (individually  dis- 
cussed.) 

(A)  Description  and  distribution. 

(B)  Growth  requirements. 

(C)  Life  history. 

(D)  Forage  value. 

b.  Ryegrasses  (Elymus). 

(Same  detail  for  the  following  genera  and 
important  species  which  they  embrace  as 
under  (3)  above). 

c.  Barleygrasses  (Hordeum). 


368  PASTURE  MANAGEMENT  AND  LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

E.  Fescue,  bluegrass,  and  bromegrass  tribe  {Fes- 
tuceae) . 

a.  Fescues  {Festuca). 

b.  Bluegrasses  {Pod). 

c.  Bromegrasses  (Bromus). 

d.  Melicgrasses  (Melica). 

e.  Lovegrasses  (Eragrostis). 

f.  Mannagrasses  (Fanicularia). 

g.  Saltgrasses  (Distichlis). 

F.  Oatgrass  tribe  {Aveneae). 

a.  Oatgrasses  (Avena). 

b.  Hairgrasses  {Air a). 

c.  Junegrasses  {Koeleria). 

d.  Trisetums  {Trisetum). 

G.  Grama-buffalo  tribe  {Chlorideae). 

a.  Gramagrasses  {Bouteloua). 

b.  Buffalograsses  {Bulhilis). 

c.  Bermudagrasses  {Capriola). 
H.  Redtop-timothy  tribe  {Agrostideae). 

a.  Redtops  {Agrostis). 

b.  Reedgrasses  {Calamagroslis). 

c.  Muhlenbergias  {Muhlenbergia). 

d.  Timothies  {Phleum). 

e.  Dropseedgrasses  {Sporoholus). 

f.  Needlegrasses  {Stipa). 

g.  Mountain  rice  {Oryzopsis). 
h.  Sweet  reedgrasses  {Cinna). 
i.  The  three-awns  {Aristida). 

j.  Other  genera,  possibly  of  local  importance. 

/.  Comparative  forage-value  classification  of  im- 
portant species  of  native  grasses. 

/.  Ecological  classification  of  important  native 
forage  grasses  as  applied  to  range  management. 

3.    Grasslike  plants. 

A.  Sedges  {Carex). 

B.  Rushes  {J uncus). 

C.  Others. 


OUTLINE   OF   GRAZING   COURSE  369 

4.   Broad-leaved  pasture  plants. 

A.  Classification. 

B.  Pasture  value  (general). 

C.  Most  important  families. 

D.  Plants  of  the  pulse  family  {Fabaceae)} 

a.  Peavines  {Latkyrus). 

(i)  Important  species  (individually  dis- 
cussed). 

(.4)  Description  and  distribution 

(distribution  maps). 
{B)  Economic  value. 

(C)  Life  history. 

(D)  Forage  value. 

(2)  Other  important  genera  and  species. 

E.  Parsley  family  {Umhelliferae). 

(Same  detail   for  important  forage  species  as 
under  (i)  immediately  above.) 

F.  Sunflower  family  {Asteraceae) . 

G.  Borage  family  (Boraginaceae) . 

H.  Honeysuckle  family  (Caprifoliaceae). 
I.  Buttercup  family  (Ranunculaceae). 
J.  Rose  family  (Rosaceae). 
K.  Willow  family  {Salicaceae). 
L.  Buckthorn  family  {Rhamnaceae) . 
M.  Figwort  family  (Scrophulariaceae). 
N.  Huckleberry  family  {V acciniaceae) . 
O.  Valerian  family  {Valerianaceae). 
P.   Goosefoot  family  {Chenopodiaceae). 
Q.  Beech  family  (Fagaceae). 
R.  Geranium  family  (Geraniaceae) . 
S.  Gooseberry  family  (Grossulariaceae) . 
T.  Mallow  family  (Malvaceae). 
U.  Bunchflower  family  (Mclanthaceae). 
V.  Evening  primrose  family  (Onagraceae). 
W.  Apple  family  (Pomaceae). 

Only  those  families  are  here  given  which  embrace  species  that  contribute  appreci- 
ably to  the  native  forage  crop. 


370  PASTURE  MANAGEMENT  AND  LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

X.  Comparative  forage-value  classification  of  im- 
portant species  of  broad-leaved  plants. 

Y.  Ecological  classification  of  important  broad- 
leaved  forage  species  pertinent  to  range  manage- 
ment. 

5.   Objectionable  plants. 

A.  Poisonous  species. 

a.  Important  families  containing  most  poison- 
ous species. 

b.  Conditions  under  which  serious  poisoning 
occurs. 

c.  General    directions    for    controUing    losses 
from  poisonous  plants. 

(i)  Handling  stock,  proper  class  of  stock, 

improved  range  husbandry,  etc. 
(2)  Eradication  of  poisonous  species. 

d.  Principal  poisonous  species. 

(i)  Discussion  of  important  species  em- 
braced in  the  most  troublesome 
genera,  viz.,  Delphinium,  Zygadenus, 
Cicuta,  Lupinus,  Astragalus,  and 
Oxytropis. 

(A)  Distribution  and  habitat. 

(B)  Losses  of  stock  and  animals 
poisoned. 

(C)  Amount    required    to    cause 
death. 

(a)  Leafage. 

(b)  Seed. 

(c)  Root. 

(D)  Symptoms,     remedies,     and 
control. 

e.  Species  of  secondary  or  local  importance. 

B.  Mechanically  injurious  plants. 

a.  Extent  and  character  of  injuries. 

b.  Season    of    greatest    injury,    and    localities 
where  losses  are  heaviest. 


OUTLINE  OF  GRAZING  COURSE  371 

c.  Most  troublesome  species. 

d.  Remedial  and  preventive  measures. 

6.   Collection  and  preservation  of  plant  specimens. 

A .  What  plants  to  collect. 

a.  Forage  plants. 

b.  Noxious  weeds. 

c.  Poisonous  plants. 

B.  How    to    collect,    dry,    mount,    label,    and    file 
specimens. 

a.  Equipment. 

b.  Parts  to  collect. 

c.  Field  notes. 

d.  Drying,  mounting,  labeKng,  and  filing  speci- 
mens. 

e.  Herbarium  cases. 

IV.   Management  of  Range  and  Pasture. 

1.  Importance  of  proper  selection  of  stock  for  different 
classes  of  range. 

2.  Suitability  of  range  to  different  classes  of  stock. 

A.  Character  of  forage,  topography,  water,  animal 
pests,  etc. 

B.  Protection  of  timber  and  watersheds. 

3.  Range  readiness,  grazing  period,  and  grazing  capacity, 

A.  Range  readiness  and  grazing  periods. 

a.  Premature  grazing  and  results. 

b.  Forage  conditions  when  stock  is  admitted. 

c.  Season  of  grazing. 

B.  Grazing  capacity. 

a.  Grazing  capacity  defined. 

b.  Factors  affecting  grazing  capacity. 

C.  Forage  (acreage)  requirements  of  stock. 

a.  Cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  horses. 

b.  Cattle  and  sheep  combined  (common  use). 

c.  Requirements    according    to    methods    of 
handling. 


372   PASTURE  MANAGEMENT   AND   LIVESTOCK   PRODUCTION 

D.  How  to  determine  grazing  capacity. 

a.  Indirect  method. 

b.  Direct  method. 

(i)  Estimate  of  "  animal-days  "  feed. 
{A)  Grazing  reconnaissance. 
{B)  Actual  grazing-capacity  tests. 
4.   Revegetation. 
A.  The  range. 

a.  Cost  of  overgrazing. 

b.  Artificial    revegetation    (cultivated    forage 
plants). 

(i)  Growth  conditions  over  western  na- 
tive range  lands  as  affecting  artificial 
reseeding. 

(2)  Results  of  plant  introduction  on  arid 
lands. 

{A)  Cultivated  grasses. 
{B)  Other  plants. 

(3)  Plant  introduction  on  mountain  lands 
in  different  grazing  regions. 

{A)  Success  with  various  species. 
{B)  Cultural  implements;    season 
of  seeding;  elevational  limita- 
tions;  causes  of  failure,  etc. 
(C)  Artificial  reseeding  to  native 
forage  plants, 
(a)  Collecting     seed     and 
cost;    methods  of  sow- 
ing;  results. 

c.  Natural  revegetation. 

(i)  Requirements  of  forage  growth. 
{A)  Life-history  studies. 
{B)  EstabHshment     of     seedling 
plants. 


OUTLINE  OF  GRAZING  COURSE  373 

(2)  Grazing    systems    and    forage    pro- 
duction. 

(A)  Yearlong  grazing. 

(B)  Yearlong  protection. 

(C)  Deferred  grazing  (defined  and 
illustrated). 

(a)  Palatability  of  mature 
forage. 

(b)  Advantages  over  other 
systems. 

(c)  Practical  application. 
B.  The  farm  pasture. 

a.  Factors   which   determine   the  value   of   a 
pasture. 

(i)  Density,  palatability,  permanency  of 
cover,  and  digestibility  of  the  forage. 

(2)  Distance    animals    must    travel    for 
food  and  water. 

(3)  Earliness  and  period   of  growth  of 
forage. 

(4)  Distance  from  market  and  farm  or 
ranch. 

b.  Kinds  of  pasture. 

c.  Why  pastures  "  run  out." 

d.  Pasture  improvement. 

(i)  Management  of  turfed  (sod)  pasture 
lands. 

(A)  Bluegrass  region,  etc. 

(a)  Alternate  vs.  continuous 
grazing;  results  of  cul- 
tural treatment;  effects 
of  light  and  heavy  graz- 
ing. 
(2)  Management  of  nonsod  pasture  lands. 

(A)  Number  of  stock  to  graze. 

(B)  Results  of  deferred  grazing. 


374  PASTURE  MANAGEMENT  AND  LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

(3)  Fertilizers. 

(A)  Kinds  and  amounts  to  apply, 

(4)  Control  of  weeds. 

C.  Recognition  and  correction  of  a  declining  forage 
yield. 

a.  Indicators  of  destructive  grazing. 

(i)  Old  (empirical)  method. 

(A)  Serious  destruction  in  forage 
cover. 

(B)  Poor  condition  of  stock 
grazed. 

(C)  Erosion  and  floods. 

(2)  New  (scientific)  method. 

(A)  Slight  changes  in  forage  cover 
shown  by  indicator  plants. 

(3)  Conspicuous  signs  of  overgrazing. 

(A)  Erosion,  barrenness,  and 
prominent  stock  trails;  dead 
shoots  of  palatable  woody 
plants;  damage  to  timber 
reproduction;  presence  of 
poisonous  plants,  etc. 

(4)  Slight  departures  in  grazing  capacity; 
increase  in  unpalatable  plants. 

b.  Type  stages  of  plants  indicating  range  con- 
ditions. 

(i)  Climax  herbaceous  stage. 

(A)  Characteristic  species. 

(a)  Growth  habits. 

(b)  Ecological    characteris- 
tics. 

(c)  Forage  value. 

(2)  Mixed  grass  and  weed  stage. 

(A)  Discussion  same  as  (A)  im- 
mediately above. 

(3)  Second  or  late  weed  stage. 


OUTLINE  OF   GRAZING   COURSE 


375 


(4)  First  or  early  weed  stage. 

(5)  Denudation. 

c.  Revegetation  of  driveways  and  bed  grounds. 

d.  How  to  recognize  reliable  pasture-indicator 
plants. 

e.  Practical  use  of  indicator  plants. 

5.  Stock- water  development. 

A .  Need  for  water. 

a.  Water  requirement  of  stock. 
h.  Distance  different  classes  of  stock  should 
travel  for  water. 

B.  Natural  watering  places  and  their  improvement. 

C.  Artificial  watering  places  and  their  construction. 

6.  Control  of  erosion. 

A.  Damage. 

B.  Kinds. 

C.  Factors  influencing  erosion. 

a.  Uncontrollable  factors  —  topography;     soil 

type;    climatic  factors. 
h.  Controllable  factor  —  vegetative  cover. 

D.  Erosion  in  relation  to  plant  growth  and  revege- 
tation. 

a.  Comparative  plant  foods  (salts)  and  forage 
production  in  eroded  and  noneroded  soils. 
h.  Revegetation  of  eroded  lands, 
(i)  Time  required. 
(2)  Species  suited  and  their  forage  value. 

E.  Solution  of  the  erosion  pasture  problem. 

a.  Control  grazing. 

h.  Application  of  deferred  and  rotation  grazing. 
c.  Terracing  and  planting   (in  extreme  cases 
only). 

7.   Judicious  grazing  on  timberlands. 

A.  History  of  faulty  handling  of  stock  on  timber 
reproduction. 


376     PASTURE  MANAGEMENT  AND  LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

B.  Investigations  on  National  Forests. 

a.  Northwest    (northern    California,    Oregon, 
and  Washington). 

(i)  Sugar  pine,  Douglas  fir,  western  yel- 
low pine,  incense  cedar,  etc. 

(A)  Extent  of  injury  by  different 
classes  of  stock. 

(B)  Comparative  seasonal  injury. 

(C)  Injury  in  relation  to  intensity 
of  grazing  and  character  and 
abundance  of  forage. 

b.  Idaho. 

(i)  Western  yellow  pine. 

(A)  Same  as  under  (A),  (B),  (C) 
above. 

c.  Arizona  and  New  Mexico. 

(i)  Western  yellow  pine. 

d.  Utah. 

(i)  Aspen. 

C.  Investigations  on  farm  woodlands. 

a.  Broadleaves. 

b.  Conifers. 

D.  Application  of  investigations. 

a.  General. 

(i)  Overgrazing  and  bad  handling  of 
stock,  improper  salting,' etc. 

(2)  Moderate,  regulated  grazing. 

(3)  Effect  of  topography,  season  of  graz- 
ing, and  type  and  abundance  of 
forage. 

b.  Regional. 

(i)  Arid  Southwest. 

(2)  Northwest. 

(3)  Great  Basin. 

8.   Burning  of  pasture  lands  in  relation  to  forage  pro- 
duction. 
A .  History  of  burning. 


OUTLINE  OF  GRAZING  COURSE  377 

B.  Present-day  burning. 

C.  Effect  of  burning  on  forage  production. 

a.  Grasslands. 
h.  Brushlands. 
c.  Woodlands. 

D.  Application  of  burning  tests  to  forage  yield. 

a.  Relation  of  decomposed  vegetation  to  soil 

fertility. 
h.  Relation  of  burning  to  plant  succession, 
(i)  Grasslands. 

(2)  Brushlands. 

(3)  Timbered  lands. 

c.  Use  of  goats  in  clearing  brushlands. 

9.  Destructive  pasture  rodents  and  their  effective  control. 

A.  Value  of  forage  destroyed  annually. 

B.  Most  destructive  species. 

a.  Prairie  dog. 

(i)  Food  habits. 

{A)  Plants  consumed. 
(2)  Methods  of  control. 

b.  Jack  rabbits. 

(i)  Discussion   as   indicated    under    (i) 
and  (2)  above. 

c.  Ground  squirrels. 

d.  Gophers. 

e.  Others. 

10.  Grazing  reconnaissance. 

A.  Object. 

B.  Chief  problems  which  reconnaissance  aims  to 
clarify. 

C  History  and  development. 

D.  Data  and  facts  obtained. 

E.  Methods  of  obtaining  data. 

F.  Grazing  and  timber  reconnaissance  compared. 

G.  Application  to  practical  range  management. 

a.  Direct. 


378     PASTURE  MANAGEMENT  AND   LIVESTOCK   PRODUCTION 

(i)  More  efficient  use  of  forage;  methods 
of  handling  stock;  building  up  range. 
b.  Indirect. 

(i)  Topographic  map,  type  map,  etc. 
H.  Estimating  grazing  capacity. 

a.  The  forage  acre. 

(i)  How  derived  and  basis  for  estimating. 

(2)  AppHcation  to  grazing  capacity. 

(3)  Variation  in  grazing  value. 

(4)  Requirements  for  dififerent  classes  of 
stock. 

b.  Grazing  capacity  of  range  and  farm  pasture. 

(i)  National  Forests. 

(2)  Public  domain. 

(3)  Farm  pastures. 

II.   Inspection  of  range  and  farm  pasture. 

A .  Factors  to  record  (preferably  on  map) . 

a.  Class  or  classes  of  stock  grazed;  readiness 
of  grazing  and  grazing  intensity;  condition 
of  driveways;  location  of  salting  places, 
water,  etc. 

B.  Class  of  stock  best  suited. 

C.  Uniformity  of  grazing. 

D.  Grazing  capacity  of  different  types. 

E.  Extent  of  areas  grazed  (i)  too  early  and  (2)  not 
early  enough. 

F.  Amount  of  forage  reserved  for  late  autumn  or 
spring  cropping. 

G.  Proper  handhng  of  stock. 

H.  Condition  of  tree  reproduction  and  watersheds. 
/.  Areas  in  need  of  reseeding  and  causes  of  depletion. 
/.  Condition  of  fences,  corrals,  and  other  such  im- 
provements. 
K.  Game  animals. 

a.  Kind,  number,  reproduction. 

b.  Where  grazed. 


OUTLINE  OF  GRAZING  COURSE  379 

Management  of  Range  and  Pasture  Livestock. 
I.   Sheep. 

A.  On  range. 

a.  Establishing  the  band. 

b.  Equipment  (buildings  and  corrals). 

c.  Control. 

(i)  Summer  range  (National  Forest). 

{A)  Estabhshment  of  range  sheep 

units. 
{B^  Reaching      allotment      with 
minimum   damage   to   range 
and  band. 
(C)  Avoidance  of  trespass. 
{D)  Uniform  use  of  range. 
{E)  Herding. 

{a)  Bedding-out  system. 
{h)  Established-camp    sys- 
tem, 
(c)  Gathering  the  sheep  for 

the  night. 
{d)  Selecting       the       bed 
ground. 
{F)  Watering. 

(a)  Frequency. 

1.  Season. 

2.  Character  of  feed. 
(6)  Time  of  day. 

(c)  Shading  up. 
(G)  Salting. 

{a)  Kind,  amount,  how  and 
when  fed. 
{E)  Timely  use  of  forage. 
(/)  Losses. 

{a)  Predatory  animals. 

{h)  Poisonous  plants. 

(c)  Disease. 

{d)  Other  causes. 


380      PASTURE   MANAGEMENT   AND   LIVESTOCK   PRODUCTION 

(2)  Winter  range  (public  domain  and  pri- 
vate lands) . 


(A)  Grazing  period. 

(B)  Location  of  camps. 

(C)  Equipment  and  supplies. 

(D)  Forage  types  grazed  and  con- 

servation of  feed  during  criti- 

cal periods. 

(£)  Emergency     feed      (concen- 

trates) during  stormy  weather 

and  in  adverse  seasons. 

(F)  Losses  and  their  control. 

(G)  Winter  feeding. 

(a)  Kind    and    amount    of 

feed. 

(b)  When  and  how  fed. 

(c)  Losses. 

(3)  Breeding,  lambing,  and  marketing. 

(A)  Breeding. 

(a)  Season   and   length   of 

period. 

(b)  Condition   of   breeding 

band. 

(c)  Number    of    rams    to 

ewes. 

(B)  Lambing. 

(a)  In  sheds  and  tents. 

(b)  On  open  range. 

(c)  Percentage  of  offspring. 

(C)  Marking  and  castrating. 

(D)  Shearing. 

(£)  Dipping. 

(F)  Branding. 

(G)  Marketing. 

d.  The  wool  clip. 

(i)  Wool. 

OUTLINE  OF  GRAZING   COURSE  381 

(A)  Production    in    the     United 
States. 

(B)  As  an  article  of  commerce. 

(C)  Amount  in  cloth. 

(D)  Substitutes. 

(E)  Structure  and  properties. 

(F)  Factors  determining  its  value. 

(G)  Classes. 
(H)   Grades. 

(2)  Shearing. 

(A)  Methods. 

(B)  Season. 

(C)  Tying  fleece. 

(D)  Weight  of  fleece. 

(3)  How  the  producer  may  increase  the 
profits. 

(A)  Better  handhng. 

(B)  Grading  and  sorting. 

(C)  Skirting. 

(D)  Hard  twine  for  tying  fleece. 
e.  Common  diseases  on  range  and  their  control. 

(Preferably    to    be   ofl'ered   in   veterinary- 
science  department.) 

(i)  Principal  diseases  of  sheep, 
(A)  Important  diseases. 

(a)  Extent  of  each  disease. 

(b)  Losses. 

(c)  Nature  and  symptoms. 

(d)  How  spread. 

(e)  Treatment  and  control. 

(2)  Diseases  of  secondary  importance. 

(3)  Dipping. 

(A)  Kinds  of  dips. 

(B)  Equipment. 
On  farm. 

a.  Selecting  and  establishing  the  flock, 
(i)  Size. 


382     PASTURE  M.\NAGEMENT  AND  LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

(2)  Age  and  thrift. 

(3)  Breed  and  quality. 

b.  Buildings  and  equipment. 

c.  Conditioning  ewes  for  mating. 

d.  Preparing  ram  for  breeding  season. 

e.  Number  of  rams  to  ewes. 
/.  Breeding  ewe  lambs. 

g.  Care  of  ewes  during  pregnancy. 
h.  Time  and  length  of  breeding  season. 
i.  Feed  of  breeding  flock. 
j.  Dipping. 
k.  Lambing  time. 
I.  Care  of  ewes  and  lambs. 
m.  The  ewes'  feed. 
n.  Salt  and  salting. 
0.  Disorders  of  udder. 
p.  Caring  for  orphan  lambs. 
q.  Care  of  weak  lambs. 
r.  Docking  and  castrating. 
s.  Marketing  the  lambs. 
t.  Weaning  stocker  lambs. 
u.  Handling  in  hot  weather. 
V.  Shearing  and  marketing  wool  (brief). 
w.  Future  of  farm  flock. 

2.  Cattle  (outline  comparable  to  that  for  sheep). 

3.  Goats  (outline  comparable  to  that  for  sheep). 

4.  Cost  of  livestock  production. 

A.  Cattle. 

a.  Eastern  States. 

b.  Southern  States. 

c.  Middle  Western  States. 

d.  Western  range  States. 

B.  Sheep. 

a.  Same  detail  as  in  "  a  "  to  "  d  "  above. 
C  Goats. 


OUTLINE   OF   GR.\ZING   COURSE  383 

5.    Predatory  animals  and  their  control. 

A .  Livestock  losses. 

B.  Principal  destructive  animals. 

a.  Coyote. 

(i)  General  habits. 

(2)  Foods. 

(3)  Methods  of  control. 

b.  Bear. 

(i)  Same  detail  as  under  "  a  "  above. 

c.  Wolf. 

d.  Wild  cat. 

e.  Mountain  lion. 

/.  Sheep-killing  dog. 

C.  Relative  destructiveness. 

D.  Methods  of  control. 

VI.  Some  Research  Phases  of  Range,  Pasture,  and  Foraging 
Animal  Problems. 

I.   Vegetation. 

A.  Forage  preferences  of  different  classes  of  stock 
and  factors  which  tend  to  disturb  the  forage 
balance. 

a.  Forage  value. 

(i)  Individual  species. 

(A)  Chemical  analysis. 

(B)  Actual  digestion  tests. 

a.  Cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and 
goats. 
(2)  Associated  or  mixed  species  (major 
associations). 

(A)  Same  as  (A)  above. 

(B)  Same  as  (B)  above. 

b.  Disturbing  factors. 

(i)  Extent  of  croppmg  which  the  various 
species  will  withstand. 
(A)  Early  spring. 


384     PASTURE  MANAGEMENT  AND  LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

(B)  Throughout  season. 

(C)  Aftermath  (late  autumn). 
(2)  CHmatic  conditions  as  affecting  for- 
age yield. 

B.  Creation  of  new  varieties  of  forage  plants. 

a.  Object:  To  increase  yield,  palatability,  and 
reproductive  quahties  by  cross-breeding  and 
selection. 

b.  Hybridization. 

(i)  Best  related  cultivated  and  native 

species  (crossed). 
(2)  Best  native  species. 

c.  Selection. 

d.  Grazing  tests  to  determine  practical  values. 

(i)  Palatability. 

(2)  Reproduction  under  use. 

(3)  Longevity. 

C.  Causes,  trend,  and  rate  of  plant  succession  on 
range. 

a.  Object :  Recognition  of  early  stages  of  over- 
grazing in  different  localities  and  time  re- 
quired to  revegetate  lands  in  various  stages 
of  depletion. 

b.  Factors  influencing  succession. 

(i)  Climate. 

(2)  Soil. 

(A)  Moisture  content  and  water- 
holding  capacity. 

(B)  Humus. 

(C)  Soluble  salts. 

(D)  Micro-organisms,  notably  ni- 
trifying species. 

(3)  Vegetational  transformations  due  to 
grazing. 

(A)  Successional  stages. 

(a)  Rate  and  composition. 


OUTLINE  OF   GRAZING   COURSE  385 

(b)  Cell-sap  density  of  im- 
portant species. 

(c)  Water  requirement. 

(d)  Morphological  charac- 
teristics of  dominant 
species. 

D.  Rate  of  succession  (revegetation)  of  the  various 
ecological  plant  stages. 

a.  Plots. 

(i)  Protected  (fenced). 

(A)  The  important  forage  types 
that  have  been  grazed  with 
varying  intensity. 
(2)  Unprotected  (grazed). 

(A)  Same  as  under  (A)  above. 

b.  Other  sample  plots. 

(i)  Denuded. 
(2)  Undenuded. 

E.  Period  study  (beginning  and  closing  of  grazing 
season). 

a.  When  range  is  ready  for  grazing. 

b.  Division  of  range  into  natural-type  units. 

(i)  Yellow  pine-oak  (Transition  zone). 

(2)  Fir-aspen  (Canadian  zone). 

(3)  Spruce-fir  (Hudsonian  zone). 

c.  Methods  of  study. 

(i)  Phenological  observations  of  im- 
portant forage  species  and  indicator 
plants. 

(A)  On  different  slopes  and  ex- 
posures  for   each   important 
type. 
(a)  Vegetative,  flower,  and 
fruit  development. 
d.  When  grazing  should  close. 

(i)  Growth  arrested;  heavy  frosts. 
(2)  Fruit  cast. 


386  PASTURE  MANAGEMENT  AND  LIVESTOCK  PRODUCTION 

(3)  Herbage  largely  consumed;    mostly 
tough  and  unpalatable. 

(4)  Weather  inclement;   snow. 

(5)  Other  factors. 

F.  Variation  in  forage  yield  (seasonal  and  possibly 
by  climatic  cycles). 

a.  Comparative  annual  yield  of  specially  se- 
lected "  type  "  plots  in  different  zones. 

b.  Causes  of  seasonal  variations. 

(i)  Chmate    (departures    from    normal, 

with  data  as  to  frequency). 
(2)  Utilization. 

(A)  Earliness  of  grazing. 

(B)  Frequency   and   closeness  of 
the  croppings. 

c.  Methods  of  study. 

(i)  "  Vigor  "  plots  (artificial  harvestings). 
(2)  Pasture  plots  (actual  grazing  tests). 

G.  Revegetation. 

a.  Natural  reseeding  to  increase  and  maintain 
forage  yield. 

(i)  Life-history  studies  of  forage  species. 
(2)  Deferred  and  rotation  grazing. 

b.  Artificial  reseeding. 

(i)  Cultivated  species. 
(2)  Native  species. 

(A)  Seed-strip  method. 
2.   Animals. 

A.  Livestock. 

a.  Grazing-capacity  tests  (to  determine  proper 
stocking) . 

(i)  On  different  types. 

(A)  Grass,  mixed  herbage,  browse 
(composite  and  composed  of 
a  single  species). 
(2)  Animals  for  study. 


OUTLINE  OF   GRAZING   COURSE  387 

{A)  Cattle. 

(a)  Forage  -  acre      require- 
ments of  different  types. 

(b)  Gains  on  different  types, 
in  different  seasons,  etc. 

(c)  Marketability. 

(B)  Sheep,    goats,     and    horses. 
(Same  as  under  (A)  above.) 
b.  More  and  better  stock. 

(i)  Maximum  percentage  of  offspring. 

(A)  Condition  of  flesh  of  breeding 
herd. 

(B)  Best  age  for  reproduction. 

(C)  Definite  breeding  season. 

(D)  Strong,  ample,  and  well-bred 
sires. 

(E)  Breeding  pastures. 

(F)  Care  during  gestation  period. 

(G)  Care  of  offspring. 

(2)  Improving  the  grade  of  stock. 

(A)  Mating    superior    sires    with 
best  dams. 

(B)  Culling  out  inferior  animals. 

(C)  Cross-breeding    to    improve 
vigor,  size,  and  fecundity. 

(3)  Prevention  of  losses. 

(A)  Conserving  feed  for  use  at 
different  (critical)  seasons. 

(B)  Supplemental  feeding  (silage, 
hay,  concentrates,  etc.). 

(C)  Control    of    poisonous-plant 
pests. 

(a)  Discovery      of      toxic 
species. 

(b)  Management  studies  de- 
signed to  prevent  losses. 


388      PASTURE  MANAGEMENT   AND    LIVESTOCK    PRODUCTION 

B.  Game  animals. 

a.  Forage  requirements. 

(i)  Grazing  capacity. 
h.  Suitable  forage  types. 

(i)  Summer. 

(2)  Winter. 

c.  Forage  species  relished. 

d.  Reproduction  of  difTerent  species. 

(i)  Mating  season. 

(2)  Period  of  gestation. 

(3)  Season  when  offspring  is  born. 

(4)  Period  required  for  development. 

e.  Hunting  regulations  devised  to  foster  repro- 
duction based  upon  field  studies. 

C.  Winter-range  husbandry. 

a.  Object:    To  develop  improved  methods  of 
handling  stock  on  winter  range. 
(i)  Sheep. 

(.4)  Individuals    that   will   with- 
stand rigors  of  winter  with 
minimum     of     supplemental 
feeding, 
(a)  Condition. 
{b)  Breed. 

(c)  Number  in  band. 
{B)  Forage  types  best  suited  for 

winter  use. 
(C)  Methods  of  handling. 
{a)  Herding. 
{h)  Losses. 

(c)  Protection    against   in- 
jury. 
I.  Poisonous     plants, 
predatory  animals, 
starvation,  storms, 
etc. 


GENERAL  INSTRUCTION  IN  GRAZING  389 

{D)  Supplemental  feed. 
{a)  Concentrates. 

I.  Kinds,       amount, 
how  and  when  fed. 
(&)  Roughages. 

I.  Silage,  hay,  other. 

(2)  Cattle.     (Same  as  under  (i)  above.) 

(3)  Goats. 

(4)  Horses. 

D.  Animals  of  prey. 

a.  Food  habits, 
(i)  Plants. 
(2)  Animals. 

{A)  Domestic. 
{B)  Rodents  and  other. 
h.  Life  history  of  different  species  pertinent 
to  control  work. 

(i)  Mating  season. 

(2)  Period  of  gestation. 

(3)  Season  when  offspring  is  born. 

(4)  Period  required  for  full  development. 

c.  Protection  against  livestock  losses. 

(i)  Most  effective  protection  of  pasture 
stock. 

(2)  Effective  control  of  predatory  ani- 
mals. 

{A)  Trapping,  hunting,  poisoning. 

d.  Improved  methods  of  control  based  upon 
Hfe-history  studies. 

E.  Range-destroying  rodents. 

a.  Food  habits. 

h.  Life-history  studies  of  important  species. 

(i)  (Same  as  under  "  6  "  above). 
c.  Control. 

(i)  Effective  poisons  in  different  seasons. 

(2)  Other  methods  of  control. 

General   Instruction   in    Grazing.  —  In   view    of    the   broad 

training  essential  for  the  professionally  trained  grazing  expert, 

it  would  not  be  possible  for  students  of  general  agriculture  and 


390      PASTURE   MANAGEMENT    AND    LIVESTOCK    PRODUCTION 

those  preparing  for  professional  forestry  to  cover  the  field  ot 
grazing  instruction  as  proposed  in  the  preceding  pages.  Only 
the  more  important  subjects  should  be  pursued  by  students  who 
desire  only  a  good  foundation  in  this  work.  The  author  believes 
that  general  rather  than  detailed  instruction  in  the  more  im- 
portant phases  of  the  subject  of  grazing  grouped  under  the  follow- 
ing, should  be  given:  III.  Native  pasture  plants;  IV.  Manage- 
ment of  range  and  pasture;  and  V.  Management  of  range  and 
pasture  livestock.    • 

The  advice  cannot  be  overemphasized  that  those  who  special- 
ize in  grazing,  especially  if  they  are  preparing  to  enter  the  United 
States  Forest  Service,  should  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunity 
of  taking  certain  forestry  courses.  Probably  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  subjects  are  silvics,  silviculture,  forest  utilization, 
and  forest  protection. 

Schools  for  Professional  Training  in  Grazing.  —  While  the 
possibilities  of  the  application  of  pasture  and  range  management 
are  very  great  everywhere  in  this  country,  it  would  appear  that 
only  a  few  schools  should  undertake,  during  the  next  few  years 
at  least,  the  development  of  grazing  experts.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  would  seem  that  all  agricultural  colleges  should  give  good  gen- 
eral training  in  the  subject  of  pasture  and  livestock  management. 
Possibly,  full-fledged  departments  of  range  management  estab- 
lished in  two  or  three  of  our  leading  schools  would  suffice  for  some 
years  to  come.  General  instruction  in  grazing  might  well  be 
coordinated  with  the  departments  of  botany,  agronomy,  or, 
indeed,  animal  husbandry.  For  professional  training  in  grazing 
the  department  may  well  be  organized  in  the  school  of  forestry, 
as  it  is  highly  important  that  the  grazing  expert  become  proficient 
in  the  art  and  science  of  forestry. 

Only  a  part  of  the  grazing  outline  here  given  has  been  devel- 
oped in  the  present  volume.  The  forthcoming  volumes,  "  Na- 
tive American  Forage  Plants  "  and  "  Livestock  Husbandry  on 
Range  and  Pasture,"  published  also  by  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc., 
aim  to  cover  in  more  or  less  detail  the  rest  of  the  outline  as 
here  given. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  391 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bates,  Carlos  G.,  and  Zon,  Raphael.  Research  Methods  in  the  Study 
of  Forest  Environment.     U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.  Bui.  1059,  192?. 

Clements,  Frederic  E.     Plant  Indicators:   The  Relation  of  Plant  Com- 
munities to  Processes  and  Practice.     Carnegie  Institution  ot  Wash., 
Pub.  No.  290,  1920. 
Plant  Succession:    An  Analysis  of  the  Development   of  Vegetation. 

Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash.,  Pub.  No.  242,  1916. 
Research  Methods  in  Ecology.     Univ.  Pub.  Co.,  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  1905. 

Jardine,  James  T.,  and  Anderson,  JVIark.  Range  Management  on  the 
National  Forests.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  790,  1919. 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Standardization  of  Instruction  in  Forestry 
of  the  Conference  of  Forest  Schools.  Forest  Quarterly,  Vol.  10, 
No.  3,  1912. 

Sampson,  Arthur  W.    Plant  Succession  in  Relation  to  Range  Management. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bui.  791,  1919. 
Suggestions  for  Instruction  in  Range  Management.     Jour,  of  Forestry, 
Vol.  17,  No.  5,  1919. 


PWi-eRff  tmuKT 
N.  C.  State  College 


INDEX 


Acacia,  belonging  to  legumes,  151. 

Accessibility,  of  range  to  stock,  factor 
in  grazing  reconnaissance,  311;  of 
grazing  lands,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  365. 

Achillea,  in  weed  type,  (fig.)  314- 

Achillea  lamilosa,  in  second  or  late  weed 
stage,  113;  habit  of  growth,  (fig.) 
114;  on  eroded  and  noneroded  pas- 
ture, (fig.)  ii8;  on  range  grazed  an- 
nually, (fig.)  122;  on  protected  plot, 
(fig.)  123;  indicator  plant,  129,  130; 
on  chart  plot,  (fig.)  342. 

Aconite,  growth  after  burning,  226; 
description  and  habitat,  279,  (fig.) 
280;   poisonous  to  stock,  279. 

Aconitum,  growth  after  burning  brush- 
land,  226. 

Aconitum  Columbianum,  description 
and  habitat,  279,  (fig.)  280;  poison- 
ous to  stock,  279. 

Acreage,  required  for  cattle,  331;  for 
sheep,  333;  requirements  of  stock, 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  371. 

Adaptability  of  range  unit  to  classes 
of  stock,  311. 

Agaric,  fly,  poisonous  to  stock,  283; 
habitat  and  description,  283,  (fig.) 
284. 

Agastache  urticifolia,  indicator  plant, 
129. 

Agriculture,  dependence  on  use  of 
ranges  in  National  Forests,  26;  re- 
lation of  pasture  livestock  production 
to,  360;  relation  to  livestock  in- 
dustry, for  study  in  grazing  course, 
364- 

Agriculture,  Secretary  of,  letter  to 
Forester,  17. 

Agronomy,  department  of,  to  include 
general  training  in  grazing,  390. 

Agropyron,  highest  herbaceous  cover, 
108;  host  plant,  281;  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  367. 

Agropyron  dasystachytim,  height  and 
root  system,  (fig.)  109;  indicator 
plant,  130;  open  grassland  composed 
of,  (fig.)  313. 

Agropyron  Scribneri,  indicator  plant, 
129. 


Agropyron  spicatum,  height  and  root 
system,  (fig.)  109;  indicator  plant, 
130. 

Agropyron  lenerwn,  in  reseeding  tests, 
43;  on  eroded  and  on  noneroded 
pasture,  (fig.)  118;  on  range  grazed 
annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  protected 
plot,  (fig.)  123;  on  protected  plot 
and  on  unprotected  range,  125;  in- 
dicator plant,  130. 

Agropyron  violaceum,  collecting  seed  of, 
57;  effect  of  cropping,  (figs.)  65; 
indicator  plant,  130. 

Agrostideae,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368._ 

Agrostis  alba,  name  for  redtop,  139. 

Agrostis  palustris,  habit  of  growth,  139. 

Aira,  for  study  in  grazing  course,  368. 

Aira  cacspitosa,  in  meadow  type,  312. 

Alamo  Forest,  goat  grazing  on,  210. 

Alfalfa,  in  reseeding  tests,  41,  44; 
amount  to  sow  and  cost,  53;  intro- 
duced from  Old  World,  55;  culti- 
vated pasture  plant,  151;  habitat, 
157;   seeding,  157;   forage  value,  157. 

Alfilaria,  winter  annual  of  Southwest, 
8;  in  reseeding  tests,  40,  44;  mois- 
ture requirements,  54;  semi-domesti- 
cated, 55;   on  winter  ranges,  80. 

Alidade,  telescopic,  used  in  field  work, 
320;   open-sight,  320. 

Alkaligrass,  name  for  death  camas,  261. 

Allium,  annual  plant,  324. 

Alpine  fir  t>pe  of  National  Forest  range, 
sheep  grazing  on,  (fig.)  19. 

Alsine  species,  on  chart  plot,  (fig.)  342. 

Amanita,  deadly,  habitat,  283;  de- 
scription, 284,  (fig.)  285. 

Amanita,  fly,  poisonous  to  stock,  283; 
habitat  and  description,  283,  (fig.) 
284. 

Amanita  muscaria,  poisonous  to  stock, 
283;  habitat  and  description,  283, 
(fig.)  284. 

Amanita  phalloides,  habitat,  283;  de- 
scription, 284,  (fig.)  285. 

Amelanchier,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106; 
effect  of  fire  on,  226. 

Anderson,  Mark,  on  acreage  required, 
for  cattle,  331;   for  sheep,  333. 

Andropogon  species,  in  reseeding  tests, 
43;  withstand  fire,  237. 


393 


394 


INDEX 


Androsace,  on  protected  plot  and  on 
unprotected  range,  125;  indicator 
plant,  128;  growth  after  burning 
brushland,  226. 

Androsace  diffusa,  indicator  plant,  128; 
on  chart  plot,  (fig.)  342. 

Animals,  "living  factories,"  3;  her- 
bivorous, for  study  in  grazing  course, 
365;  game,  study  of,  in  grazing 
course,  378,  388;  predatory,  for  study 
in  grazing  coursp,  383;  research 
phases  for  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 
386;  of  prey,  study  of,  in  grazing 
course,  389. 

Annual  pasture,  88. 

Annual  weed  cover,  108. 

Aniennaria,  growth  after  burning  brush- 
wood, 226. 

Apple  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Arislida,  mechanically  injurious,  286; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  368. 

Arislida  species,  withstand  fire,  237. _ 

Arislida  adscensionis,  injurious  species, 
288. 

Arislida  Fendleriana,  injurious  species, 
288. 

Arizona,  sheep  and  cattle  grazed  under 
permit,  21;  reseeding  tests,  40; 
study  of  efi,ect  of  grazing  on  timber 
production,  202;  study  on  Coconino 
Forest,  204;  earth  reservoir,  (fig.) 
303;  studies  of  grazing  capacity, 
329;  investigations  in,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  376. 

Arrhetmllienim  elaliu-!,  in  reseeding  tests, 
44;  habit  of  growth,  (fig.)  146; 
value  for  hay  and  pasture,  146. 

Arsenite  of  soda,  used  in  killing  poison- 
ous plants,  247. 

Artemisia,  effect  of  fire  on,  226. 

Arlemisia  discolor,  in  depletion  of 
mixed  grass  and  weed  stage,  113; 
habit  of  growth,  (fig.)  114;  on  range 
grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  pro- 
tected plot,  (fig.)  123;  on  protected 
plot  and  on  unprotected  range,  125; 
indicator  plant,  129,  130. 

Asclepias,  poisonous  to  stock,  272. 

Asclepias  galioides,  habitat  and  de- 
scription, (fig.)  272,  273. 

Aspen,  t>^e  of  forest,  forage  on,  198; 
area  grazed  by  sheep  twice  each 
season,  (fig.)  205;  effect  of  grazing 
on  reproduction,  205;  area  protected 
from  sheep,  (fig.)  207;  remnants  of 
sprouts  on  sheep  range,  (fig.)  208; 
effect  of  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle  on, 
212;   for  troughs,  300;   grazing  type, 


(fig.)  315,  (fig.)  317;  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  376. 

Aster,  invasion  of  farm  pasture,  (fig.) 
loi;  on  range  grazed  annually,  (fig.) 
122;  on  protected  plot,  (fig.)  123; 
on  protected  plot  and  on  unprotected 
range,  125;   indicator  plant,  129. 

Aster,  woody,  poisonous  to  stock,  275, 

(fig-)  277- 

Aslcr  frondeus,  on  range  grazed  an- 
nuallj',  (fig.)  122;  on  protected  plot, 
(fig.)  123;   indicator  plant,  129. 

Asteraceae,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
369. 

Astragalus,  poisonous  to  livestock,  243; 
description,  250;  for  study  in  graz- 
ing course,  370. 

Astragalus  decumbens,  indicator  plant, 
130. 

Astragalus  mollissimus,  description,  250; 
habit  of  growth,  (fig.  frontis.);  distri- 
bution and  habitat,  250. 

Atlantic  States,  species  of  lupine  found 
in,  267. 

A  triplex  semibaccata,  in  reseeding  tests, 
44. 

Atropine,  for  larkspur  poisoning,  258. 

A  vena,  semi-domesticated,  55;  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  368. 

Aveneae,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Azalea,  poisonous  species,  274. 

Azalea  occidentalis,  poisonous  species, 
274. 


B 


"Baby"  beeves,  feeding  grain  ration  to, 

96. 
Bacteria,  nitrifying,  destroyed  by  fire, 

226;   contain  to.xic  substances,  243. 
Bacteriology,  au.xiliary  subject  in  study 

of  pasture  management,  361. 
Barium  chloride,  for  larkspur  poisoning, 

258. 
Barley,  meadow,  on  bed  ground,  (fig.) 

121. 
Barley,  Pacific,  mechanically  injurious, 

286. 
Barley,    squirreltail,    mechanically    in- 
jurious,   286,    (fig.)    287;    injury   to 

lamb,  (fig.)  288. 
Barley,    wall,    mechanically    injurious, 

286. 
Barleygrass,     mechanically     injurious, 

285,  286;  for  study  in  grazing  course, 

367. 
Barnes,  Will  C,  on  cost  of  reservoirs, 

303- 


INDEX 


395 


Barometer,  aneroid,  used  in  field  work, 

319,  320. 
Barren  lands,  grazing  t>'pe,  315,  (fig.) 

316. 
Bean,  blue,  name  for  lupine,  266. 
Bean,    common   garden,    belonging    to 

legumes,  151. 
Bean  family,  nongrasslike  forage  plants, 

151- 

Bean,  Indian,  name  for  lupine,  266. 

Bean,  velvet,  cultivated  pasture  plant, 
151;  in  full  pod,  (fig.)  162;  habitat, 
163;  habit  of  growth,  163;  seeding, 
163;   forage  value,  164. 

Bear,  study  of,  in  grazing  course,  383. 

Beaver  poison,  name  for  water  hemlock, 
264. 

Bed  ground,  o\'ergrazing  indicated  by 
plants  on,  107;  vegetation  on,  119; 
zones  of  vegetation  on,  (fig.)  120; 
vegetation  on,  after  five  years  of 
protection,  (fig.)  121;  effect  of  plow- 
ing, 124;  indicator  plants  on,  128; 
injury  to  timber  reproduction,  199, 
201,.  204;  relation  of,  to  poisoning, 
248;  revegetation  of,  in  grazing 
course,  375. 

Beech  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Bell,  "  History  of  California,"  on  forest 
fires,  218. 

Bent  grass,  name  for  redtop,  139. 

Bermudagrass,  area  of  growth,  5;  adapt- 
ed to  humid  regions,  55,  132;  intro- 
duced from  Old  World,  55,  135; 
sown  extensively  on  permanent  pas- 
ture, 132;  habitat,  135,  137;  habit 
of  growth,  (fig.)  136,  137;  seeding, 
137;  with  bur  clover,  156;  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  368. 

Bicarbonate  of  soda,  for  lupine  poison- 
ing, 269. 

"Big  four"  for  hay  and  pasture,  132. 

Bigtrees,  California,  evidence  of  fire 
scars  on,  216. 

Binder,  grain  or  "self,"  142. 

Bisect,  of  vegetation  on  high  moun- 
tain range,  (fig.)  350;  form  of  sample 
plot,  351- 

Bitterbrush,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106. 

Bladder  pod,  on  eroded  and  on  non- 
eroded  pasture,  (fig.)  118. 

Bleeding,  for  larkspur  poisoning,  259; 
for  death  camas  poisoning,  263;  for 
lupine  poisoning,  269. 

Blood,  dried,  as  fertilizer,  100. 

Blue  bean,  name  for  lupine,  266. 

Blue  Mountains,  of  Oregon,  mountain 
reseeding  tests,  44;  elevational  limits 
of    reseeding,    50;     e.xperiments    in 


frequent  harvesting,  63;  protection 
of  o\ergrazed  area,  66;  studies  of 
palatability  of  mature  forage,  76; 
forest  fire,  216;  effect  of  fire  on  brush, 
226. 

Blue  pea,  name  for  lupine,  266. 

Bluegrass,  in  mi.\ed  grass  and  weed 
stage,  hi;  often  killed  by  fire, 
223,  237;  for  stud}'  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Bluegrass,  Canada,  in  reseeding  tests, 
43;  amount  to  sow  and  cost,  53; 
moisture  requirements,  54;  habit  of 
growth,  135;  value  as  pasture  plant, 
135;  mixture  for  permanent  pasture, 
149. 

Bluegrass,  English,  name  for  Canada 
bluegrass,  135;  name  for  meadow 
fescue,  147. 

Bluegrass,  flatstem,  name  for  Canada 
bluegrass,  135. 

Bluegrass,  Kentucky,  in  reseeding  tests, 
41,  44,  45,  47;  elevational  limitations, 
50;  yields  heavily,  52;  amount  to 
sow  and  cost,  53,  134;  moisture  re- 
quirements,   54;     in   mixed   seeding, 

54,  134;    adapted  to  humid  regions, 

55,  89;  introduced  from  Old  World, 
55;  on  permanent  pasture,  88,  132; 
pasture  plant  par  excellence,  93;  for 
hay  and  pasture  combined,  132; 
habit  of  growth,  132,  (fig.)  133; 
lawn  grass,  134;  in  mixture  for  per- 
manent pasture,  148. 

Bluegrass,  Httle,  indicator  plant,  130. 

Bluegrass,  Nevada,  indicator  plant,  130. 

Bluegrass,  Virginia,  name  for  Canada 
bluegrass,  135. 

Bluejoint,  host  plant,  281. 

Bonneville,  Captain,  Adventures  of, 
on  fires  along  Platte  River,  218. 

Borage  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Boraginaceac,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Botany,  auxiliary  subject  in  study  of 
pasture  management,  361;  applica- 
tion of,  362;  department  of,  to  in- 
clude general  training  in  grazing,  390. 

Botfly,  to  be  considered  in  study  of 
entomology,  362. 

Boidcloua,  mechanically  injurious,  286; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  368. 

Botitelona  aristidoides,  injurious  species, 
289. 

Boiiteloua  gracilis,  in  reseeding  tests, 
40,  43- 

Boiiteloua  hirstita,  in  reseeding  tests,  40. 

Brome,  June,  name  for  downy  brome- 
grass,  286. 


396 


INDEX 


Bromegrass,  scattering  and  planting 
of  seed,  67;  in  depletion  of  mixed 
grass  and  weed  stage,  iii;  mechan- 
ically injurious,  285;  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  368. 

Bromegrass,  Austrian,  name  for  Hun- 
garian bromegrass,  137. 

Bromegrass,  awnless,  name  for  Hun- 
garian bromegrass,  137. 

Bromegrass,  downy,  growth  after  burn- 
ing brushland,  226;  mechanically 
injurious,  286. 

Bromegrass,  hairy,  mechanically  in- 
jurious, 286. 

Bromegrass,  Hungarian,  in  reseeding 
tests,  41,  44,  45,  47;  more  permanent 
than  timothy,  52;  amount  to  sow 
and  cost,  53;  moisture  requirements, 
54;  introduced  from  Old  World,  55; 
on  permanent  pasture,  88,  132;  habit 
of  growth,  137,  (fig.)  138;  value 
as  hay  and  as  pasture,  138;  seeding, 
138;   kind  of  soil,  139. 

Bromegrass,  large  mountain,  indicator 
plant,  129. 

Bromegrass,  mountain,  collecting  seed 
of,  57;  terrace  seeded  to,  (fig.)  194; 
growth  after  burning  brushland,  226. 

Bromegrass,  native,  growth  on  eroded 
and  on  noneroded  soil,  184;  relative 
water  requirements,  (fig.)  186;  sum- 
mary of  study,  (fig.)  188. 

Bromegrass,  Porter's,  indicator  plant, 
129,  130. 

Bromegrass,  red,  mechanically  injuri- 
ous, 286. 

Bromegrass,  Russian,  name  for  Hun- 
garian bromegrass,  137. 

Bromegrass,  smooth,  name  for  Hun- 
garian bromegrass,  137,  (fig.)  138. 

Brornus,  in  depletion  of  mi.xed  grass 
and  weed  stage,  in;  growth  after 
burning  brushland,  226;  mechanic- 
ally injurious,  285;  for  study  in  graz- 
ing course,  368. 

Brornus  carinatus,  collecting  seed  of,  57. 

Bromus  inermis,  habit  of  growth,  137, 
(fig.)  138;  value  as  hay  and  as 
pasture,  138;   kind  of  soil,  139. 

Bromus  marginatiis,  indicator  plant, 
129;  growth  on  eroded  and  on  non- 
eroded  soil,  184. 

Bromus  Porteri,  indicator  plant,    129, 

130- 

Bromus  rubens,  mechanically  injurious, 
286. 

Bromus  tectorum,  mechanically  injuri- 
ous, 286. 

Bromus  villosus,  mechanically  injurious, 
286. 


Broomgrass,    in    reseeding    tests,    43: 

withstands  fire,  237. 

Broom  sedge,  withstands  fire,  224. 

Browse,  grazing  t>-pe,  (fig.)  315. 

Browsing,  effect  of,  on  timber  repro- 
duction, 199,  200;  yellow  pine,  in- 
jured by  sheep,  (fig.)  201;  yellow 
pine,  injured  by  cattle,  (fig.)  203; 
deformed  trees,  result  of,  (fig.)  204; 
effects  of,  on  aspen  reproduction,  206; 
area  protected  from  sheep,  (fig.)  207. 

Brush  drag,  for  covering  seed,  41. 

Brushland,  effect  of  burning,  225. 

Buckthorn,  effect  of  fire  on,  226. 

Buckthorn  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Buffaloes,  migrations  of,  61;  impress 
on  range,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
365. 

Buffalograss,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Buffalograss-gramagrass,  in  Great 
Plains,  6. 

Bulbilis,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Bunchflower  family,  poisonous  plants, 
242;  for  study  in  grazing  course,  369. 

Bunchgrass,  in  desert  range  of  Great 
Basin,  7;  cropping  tests  with,  63; 
revegetation  of  bunchgrass  lands,  66; 
seedlings  at  end  of  first  and  of  sec- 
ond year's  growth,  (figs.)  68,  69; 
early  in  summer  of  third  year,  (fig.) 
70;  at  end  of  third  year,  (fig.)  71; 
does  not  withstand  early  grazing  as 
well  as  sodgrass,  88;  form  of  growth, 
89,  90;  t>T5ical  form,  (fig.)  91;  over- 
grazing, the  rule,  96;  effect  of  grazing 
on  timber  reproduction  on  bunch- 
grass range,  204. 

Bunchgrass,  mountain,  at  end  of  first 
season  of  growth,  (fig.)  68;  at  end 
of  second  season,  (fig.)  69;  earl}-  in 
summer  of  third  year,  (fig.)  70;  at 
end  of  third  year,  (fig.)  71. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  studies  of 
grazing  capacity,  328. 

Burning,  burned-over  forest  range, 
(fig.)  46;  of  pasture  lands,  216; 
history  of,  216;  woodland  pasture 
fire,  (fig.)  217;  fire-swept  area,  (fig.) 
218;  present-day,  219;  reasons  for, 
220;  effects  on  forage  production, 
221;  effect  on  grasslands,  222;  in 
the  South,  223;  favors  erosion,  224; 
periodic,  225;  effect  on  brushlands, 
225;  effect  on  wooded  pastures  and 
forest  ranges,  228;  effect  on  vege- 
tation, 229;  study  o{,  in  grazing 
course,  376. 


INDEX 


397 


Bursa,  growth  after  burning  brush- 
land,  226. 

Bursa  bursa-pastoris,  on  chart  plot,  (fig.) 
342. 

Buttercup,  familj-,  poisonous  plants, 
243 ;  for  study  in  grazing  course,  369. 

Butterweed,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106; 
indicator  plant,  129. 


Cacti,  mechanically  injurious,  284. 

Caffeine,  for  larkspur  poisoning,  258. 

Calamagrosiis,  on  burned-over  forest 
range,  (fig.)  46;  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  368. 

Calicobush,  name  for  mountain  "lau- 
rel," 274,  (fig.)  276. 

California,  sheep  and  cattle  grazed 
under  permit,  21;  test  of  deferred 
grazing,  80;  study  of  effect  of  graz- 
ing on  timber  reproduction,  198. 
Bell's  History  of,  on  causes  of  forest 
fires,  218;  investigations  in,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  376. 

Camas,  death,  poisonous,  242;  when 
to  graze,  245;  method  of  eradicating, 
247;  description,  261,  (fig.  frontis.); 
distribution  and  habitat,  261;  poi- 
sonous species,  261;  losses  due  to, 
262;  poisonous  parts,  262;  amount 
required  to  cause  death,  263;  symp- 
toms of  poisoning,  263;  remedies, 
263;  characteristic  sheep  poisoning, 
(fig.)  264;  summary  of  symptoms 
and  remedies,  270. 

Caprifoliaceae,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Capriola,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Capriola  Dactylon,  introduced  from 
Europe,  135;  habitat,  135,  137; 
habit  of  growth,  (fig.)  136,  137. 

Carex,  study  of,  in  grazing  course,  367, 
368. 

Carpetgrass,  easily  killed  by  fire,  224, 

237- 
Carrier,  LjTnan,  investigation  of  meth- 
ods of  cropping  and  treating  pasture, 

93- 

Cascade  Mountains,  study  of  injury  to 
forest  growth  by  sheep  grazing  on, 
199. 

Cattle,  thrive  on  winter  annual  plants, 
8;  number  grazed  on  National  For- 
ests, 21;  increase  on  National  For- 
ests from  igog  to  1919,  22;  breed 
improved  by  lease  plan,  34;  stocker, 
grazing  by,  97:  injury  to  yellow  pine 
reproduction   in   Arizona   and   New 


Mexico,  202;  effect  of  browsing  on 
reproduction  of  aspen,  206;  number 
grazed  on  National  Forests  in  1921, 
232;  losses  due  to  poisoning,  241; 
driving  and  herding,  248;  losses  from 
larkspur  poisoning,  256;  losses  from 
water  hemlock  poisoning,  265;  water 
requirements,  296;  most  valuable 
pasture  lands  for,  355;  forage  prefer- 
ences of,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
367;  forage  requirements  of,  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  371,  387; 
management  of,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  382;  cost  of  production,  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  382;  on 
winter  range,  study  of,  in  grazing 
course,  389. 

Ceanothus,  effect  of  fire  on,  226. 

Cedar,  incense,  injury  to,  by  various 
agencies,  199;  injury  to,  by  stock, 
foj-  study  in  grazing  course,  376. 

Cellulose,  indigestible  substance,  3. 

Cement,  for  curbing  springs,  298; 
troughs,  301. 

Cercocarpus,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106; 
effect  of  fire  on,  226. 

Chamaencrion,  growth  after  burning 
brushwood,  226. 

Chaparral  land,  effect  of  burning  on, 
225. 

ChapUne,  W.  R.,  on  goat  grazing,  210. 

Chart  plot,  341;  vegetation  on,  (fig.) 
342;    pantograph  for  mapping,  (fig.) 

345- 

Chemistry,  auxihary  subject  in  study 
of  pasture  management,  361;  ap- 
phcation  of,  363. 

Chenopodiaceae,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Chenopodium  album,  in  first  or  early 
weed  stage,  115,  (fig.)  116;  on  bed 
ground,  (fig.)  121;  indicator  plant, 
128. 

Cherry,  choke,  natural  invader  of  cut- 
over  or  fir  t>'pe,  89;  poisonous  to 
stock,  279,  (fig.)  281. 

Cherry,  wild,  poisonous  to  stock,  279, 
(fig.)  281. 

Chlorideae,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Chrysothamnus  lanceolatus,  appears  in 
destruction  of  wheatgrass  cover, 
108;  indicator  plant,  129. 

Cicuta,  poisonous  to  livestock,  243; 
description,  264;  distribution  and 
habitat,  264;  losses  from,  265;  poi- 
sonous parts,  265;  S3Tnptoms  of  poi- 
soning, 265;  remedies,  266;  control 
and  prevention  of  losses,  266;  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  370. 


398 


INDEX 


Cicula  occidenlalis,  western  plant,  264, 
(fig.  frontis.). 

Cinna,  for  study  in  grazing  course,  368. 

Cinquefoil,  indicator  plant,  129. 

Claviceps  purpurea,  description  and 
habitat,  281,  (fig.)  283;  poisonous 
to  stock,  281. 

Clements,  Frederic  E.,  quadrat  meth- 
od developed  by,  341. 

Climate,  cause  of  declining  forage  yield, 
89;  factor  in  determining  adapta 
bility  of  range  to  classes  of  stock, 
311;  study  of,  in  grazing  course,  365. 

Climatic  cycles  in  forage  jdeid,  study  of, 
in  grazing  course,  363,  386. 

Climatic  data,  included  in  study  of 
meteorology,  363. 

Climatic  factors,  in  erosion,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  375. 

Climax  herbaceous  stage,  107;  value  as 
forage,  in;  indicator  plants,  130; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  374. 

Clover,  cultivated  pasture  plant,  151; 
species  and  habitat,  152. 

Clover,  Alsike,  in  reseeding  tests,  44, 
45;  yields  well,  52;  amount  to  sow 
and  cost,  53;  moisture  requirements, 
54;  in  mixture  for  temporary  pas- 
ture, 148;  for  permanent  pasture, 
149;  habit  of  growth,  152;  intro- 
duced into  United  States,  152;  seed- 
ing, 152;    form  of  growth,  (fig.)   153. 

Clover,  bur,  in  reseeding  tests,  44; 
amount  to  sow  and  cost,  53;  mois- 
ture requirements,  54;  on  winter 
range,  80;  habitat,  155;  species,  156; 
form  of  growth,  (fig.)  156;  kind  of 
soil,  156. 

Clover,  Japanese,  or  Japan,  in  reseeding 
tests,  44;  moisture  requirements, 
54;  cultivated  pasture  plant,  151; 
habitat,  164;  value,  164;  seeding, 
164. 

Clover,  red,  in  reseeding  test,  44; 
amount  to  sow  and  cost,  53;  mois- 
ture requirements,  54;  on  permanent 
pasture,  88;   in  mixtures,  148. 

Clover,  spotted  bur,  habitat,  156;  form 
of  growth,  (fig.)  156;  in  combination 
with  Bermudagrass,  156. 

Clover,  Swedish,  name  for  Alsike,  152. 

Clover,  sweet,  cultivated  pasture  plant, 
151;  habit  of  growth,  (fig.)  154, 
155;  habitat,  155;  seeding,  155; 
objection  to,  155. 

Clover,  white,  in  reseeding  tests,  44, 
45.  47.  52;  amount  to  sow  and  cost, 
53;  moisture  requirements,  54,  153; 
seeded  with  Kentucky  bluegrass,  134; 
mixture  for  permanent  pasture,  148, 


149;  habit  of  growth,  153  ;  seeding 
153- 

Cocklebur,  mechanically  injurious,  284. 

Cock's-foot,  name  for  orchardgrass,  142. 

Coconino  National  Forest,  study  of 
grazing  damage  to  yellow  pine  repro- 
duction on,  204;  study  of  improved 
methods  of  range  management  on, 
310. 

Collection,  plant,  for  grazing  recon- 
naissance, 318;  of  specimens  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  371. 

Colleges,  agricultural,  inclusion  of 
courses  in  pasture  and  livestock 
management  in  curricula  of,  360,  390. 

Collomia,  slender-leaved,  in  first  or 
early  weed  stage,  115,  (fig.)  116; 
on  eroded  and  on  noneroded  pasture, 
(fig.)  118;   indicator  plant,  128. 

Collomia  linearis,  in  first,  or  early  weed 
stage,  115,  (fig.)  116;  on  eroded  and 
noneroded  pasture,  (fig.)  118;  in- 
dicator plant,  128. 

Colorado,  sheep  and  cattle  grazed  under 
permit,  21. 

Comb  seed  stripper,  for  collecting  seed, 
(fig.)  56,  57. 

Compass,  used  in  traverse  sketching, 
319- 

Coniferous  trees,  less  palatable  than 
hardwoods,  209;  damage  to  seed- 
lings by  browsing  and  trampling, 
235;  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
376. 

Corn,  Kafir,  supplemental  feed,  34. 

Cost,  of  seeding,  52,  53,  54;  of  collect- 
ing seed,  57;  of  overgrazing,  61;  of 
eradicating  loco  plants,  255;  of 
eradicating  larkspur,  259;  of  troughs, 
300;  of  reservoirs,  304;  of  wells,  304; 
of  feed  and  labor,  307;  of  livestock 
production,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  382. 

Cotton,  J.  S.,  reseeding  experiments,  43. 

Couchgrass,  host  plant,  281. 

Coville,  Frederick  V.,  study  of  injury 
to  forest  growth  from  sheep  grazing, 
199. 

Cow  poison,  common  name  for  lark- 
spur, 255. 

Cow  unit,  meaning  of,  330;  grazing 
capacity  of  National  Forests  in  cow 
units,  331;  acreage  required  for  cattle, 
331;   acreage  required  for  sheep,  2i33,- 

Cowbane,  name  for  water  hemlock,  264. 

Cowpeas,  cultivated  pasture  plant,  151; 
habit  of  growth,  158;  field  of,  (fig.) 
158;  introduced  from  Africa,  158; 
seeding,  158. 

Coyote,  study  of,  in  grazing  course,  383. 


INDEX 


399 


Crepis  acuminata,  indicator  plant,  129; 
on  chart  plot,  (fig.)  342. 

Crook  County  Sheep-Shooting  Asso- 
ciation, 14. 

Cropping,  tests,  63;  effect  on  vege- 
tation, (figs.)  65;  deferred,  vs.  year- 
long grazing,  (fig.)  77;  study  of 
methods,  93. 

Cross-breeding,  purpose  of,  387. 

Crown  fire,  234. 

Curbing,  for  springs,  298;  for  wells,  304. 

Curricula,  of  agricultural  colleges,  in- 
clusion of  courses  on  pasture  and 
Hvestock  management  in,  360. 

Cymopterus,  false,  in  foxglove-sweet 
sage-yarrow  cover,  114;  on  eroded 
and  on  noneroded  pasture,  (fig.)  118; 
indicator  plant,  129. 


Dadylis  glomerata,  habit  of  growth, 
(fig.)  142. 

Dandelion,  on  range  grazed  annually, 
(fig.)  122;  on  protected  plot,  (fig.) 
123;  on  protected  plot  and  on  un- 
protected range,  125. 

Dandelion,  mountain,  indicator  plant, 
129. 

Dayton,  WiUiam  A.,  study  of  effect  of 
grazing  on  timber  reproduction,  198. 

"Dead  lines"  in  conflicts  over  range 
territor>%  15. 

Death  camas,  poisonous,  242;  when 
to  graze,  245 ;  method  of  eradicating, 
247;  description,  261,  (fig.  frontis.); 
distribution  and  habitat,  261;  poi- 
sonous species,  261;  losses  due  to, 
262;  poisonous  parts,  262;  amount 
required  to  cause  death,  263;  symp- 
toms of  poisoning,  263;  remedies, 
263;  characteristic  symptoms  of 
sheep  poisoning  by,  (fig.)  264;  sum- 
mary of  sj-mptomsand  remedies,  270. 

Death  cup,  habitat,  283;  description, 
284,  (fig.)  285. 

Death  Valley,  below  sea  level,  7. 

Delphinium,  species  of  poisonous  plants, 
243;  distribution  and  habitat,  255; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  370. 

Delphinium  Barbeyi,  on  range  grazed 
annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  protected 
plot,  (fig.)  123;  species  of  tall  lark- 
spur, 256;  habit  of  growth,  (fig. 
frontis.). 

Delphinium  bicolor,  distribution  and 
habitat,  256. 

Delphinium  cucullatum,  species  of  lark- 
spur, 256. 

Delphinium  Menziesii,  indicator  plant, 


129;  distribution  and  habitat,  256; 
habit  of  growth,  (fig.  frontis.) . 

Department  of  Agriculture,  medical 
tests  by,  263;  studies  of  grazing 
capacity  by  Bur.  of  Plant  Industry, 
328. 

Depletion  of  forage  crop,  104. 

Denuded  or  depopulated  plots,  349; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  385. 

Desert  range,  for  sheep  grazing,  (fig.)  7. 

de  Vaca,  Cabeza,  fires  set  by  Indians, 
217. 

Devil's  darning  needle,  mechanically 
injurious,  288;   description,  288. 

Dimensions  of  sample  plots,  square 
areas,  356,  (fig.)  357;  circular  areas, 
358. 

Disking,  in  expenments  m  treatmg 
pasture  lots,  94,  95;  after  scattering 
seed,  102. 

Distichlis,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Dock,  Mexican,  in  foxglove-sweet  sage- 
yarrow  cover,  114;  on  bed  grounds, 
(fig.)  121;  on  protected  bed  grounds, 
124;  indicator  plant,  129. 

Dogs,  sheep  herding  by,  72;  excessive 
use  of,  to  be  avoided,  79,  335;  sheep- 
killing,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 

383.  ... 

Dogtown  three-awn,  mjunous  species, 

288. 
Draba  cana,  on  chart  plot,  (fig.)  342. 
Drag,    brush,    for    covering    seed,    41; 

terrace,  (fig.)  193. 
Drawing,      mechanical,      included     in 

course    in    civil    engineering,    363. 
Drill,  grain,  141. 
Driveways,  vegetation  on,  119;   factor 

in  fire  control,   234,   235;    poisonous 

plants    on,    248;     losses    from    wild 

cherry  poisoning,   279;    revegetation 

of,  for  study  in  grazing  course,  375. 
Dropseedgrass,    for    study    in    grazing 

course,  368. 
Drought,   cause   of   failure   of   seeding 

tests,   48,   52;    destruction   of   seed- 

Ungs  due  to,  72;  injures  forest  plants, 

89;  drought-enduring  grasses,  138, 145; 

injury  to  tree  production  by,  199. 
Dry  farming,   in   Great  Plains,   6;    in 

Great  Basin,  7;   in  the  Southwest,  8; 

success   of,    10;    on   native   western 

range,  39. 

E 

Ecology,  auxiliary  subject  in  study  of 

pasture  management,  361. 
Elder,  mountain,  in  browse  type,  (fig.) 

315- 


400 


INDEX 


Elymiis,  host  plant,  281;    for  study  in 

grazing  course,  367. 
Elymits  Iriticoidcs,  host  plant,  283. 
Engine,  gasoline,  for  wells,  304. 
Engineering,  civil,  auxiliary  subject  in 

study  of  pasture  management,  362; 

includes  mechanical  drawing,  363. 
Entomology,  auxiliary  subject  in  study 

of   pasture    management,    361;     ap- 
plication of,  362. 
Ephraim,  Utah,  flood  at,  174;    erosion 

area,  head  of  canyon,  (fig.)  180. 
Eragrostis,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 

368. 
Ergot,  poisonous  to  livestock,  243,  281; 

description  and  habitat,   281,    (fig.) 

283. 
Erigeron  divergens,  on  chart  plot,  (fig.) 

342. 
Erigeron  effusus,  on   chart  plot,   (fig.) 

Erodium  cicularium,  in  reseeding  tests, 
40,  44;   semi-domesticated,  55. 

Erosion,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106;  vege- 
tation on  eroded  and  on  noneroded 
pasture,  117,  (fig.)  118;  danger  of, 
171;  damage  by,  172;  study  of,  on 
National  Forests,  173;  kinds  of,  175, 
176;  of  wagon  road,  (fig.)  175;  fac- 
tors influencing,  177;  study  of,  in 
Wasatch  Mountains,  177;  steepness 
of  slope  a  factor  in,  177;  influence  of 
soil,  178;  influence  of  rainfall,  179; 
influence  of  melting  snow,  180;  in- 
fluence of  wind,  181;  influence  of 
vegetative  cover,  182;  relation  of, 
to  plant  growth  and  revegetation, 
182,  189;  study  of  growth  on  eroded 
and  on  noneroded  soil,  184;  meaning 
of,  (fig.)  185;  overgrazing  and 
erosion,  (fig.)  190;  solution  of  prob- 
lem, 191;  favored  by  burning,  224, 
225;  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 
374,  375- 

Erythronium,  annual  plant,  324. 

Eubotrys,  swamp,  poisonous  species 
of  "laurel,"  274. 

Eubotrys  racemosa,  poisonous  species  of 
"laurel,"  274. 

European  Governments,  administra- 
tion of  forests,  23;  property  rights, 
24,  26. 

Everlasting,  growth  of,  after  burning 
brushland,  226. 


Fabaceae,  nongrasslike  forage  plants, 
151;  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
369. 


Fabales,  order  of  plants,   151. 

Faboideae,    subfamily    name,    151. 

Fagaceac,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
369- 

Farley,  F.  W.,  investigation  of  pasture 
management   in   piney   woods,    224. 

F'arm  lands,  unimproved,  extent  of, 
4- 

Feed,  supplemental,  one  reason  for  in- 
creased profits  under  leasing  system, 
34;  to  be  considered  in  pasture  in- 
spection, 335. 

Fencing,  against  stock,  10;  first  step 
toward  pasture  and  livestock  man- 
agement, (fig.)  s:^,;  advantages  of, 
82;  to  improve  depleted  pasture, 
98;  to  prevent  larkspur  poisoning, 
260;  to  protect  springs,  298,  (fig.) 
299;    sample  plots,  358. 

Fendler's  three-awn,  injurious  species, 
288. 

Fern,  common  bracken,  poisonous  to 
stock,  279,  (fig.)   282. 

Fertility,  maintenance  of,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  364. 

FertiHzer,  for  pasture  and  grassland, 
98;  kinds  and  amounts,  99;  for 
removing  weeds,  102;  for  stud}^  in 
grazing  course,  374. 

Fescue,  hard,  in  reseeding  tests,  44; 
amount  to  sow  and  cost,  53;  mois- 
ture requirements,  54. 

Fescue,  meadow,  for  hay  and  pasture 
combined,  132,  (fig.)  147;  habit  of 
growth,  147;   amount  to  sow,  147. 

Fescue,  spiked,  indicator  plant,  130. 

Fescue,  western,  indicator  plant,   130. 

Fescuegrass,  winter  annual  of  South- 
west, 8;  scattering  and  planting  of 
seed,  67;  in  mixed  grass  and  weed 
stage,  iii;  for  hay  and  pasture 
combined,  132;  often  killed  by  fire, 
223,  237;  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Festuca,  in  mixed  grass  and  weed  stage, 
in;  often  killed  by  fire,  223,  237; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  368. 

Festuca  confinis,  indicator  plant,    130. 

Festuca  duriuscula,  in  reseeding  tests, 
44. 

Festuca  elatior,  habit  of  growth,  (fig.) 
147;  value,  147;  amount  to  sow,  147. 

Festuca  occuientalis,  indicator  plant, 
130. 

Festuca  pratensis,  former  name  for 
meadow  fescue  (F.  elatior),  147. 

Fcstuceae,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Figwort  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 


INDEX 


401 


Fir,  alpine,  type  of  National  Forest 
range,  sheep  grazing  on,  (fig.)  19. 

Fir,  Douglas,  tj'pe  of  forest,  forage 
on,  198;  damage  to,  by  various 
agencies,  199;  effect  of  goat  grazing, 
211;  for  troughs,  300;  injury  to,  by 
stock,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
.376. 

Fir,  grand,  for  troughs,  300. 

Fir,  white,  injury  to,  by  various  agen- 
cies,   199. 

Fir-aspen,  natural-type  unit,  study 
of,  in  grazing  course,  385. 

Fire  control,  relation  to  grazing,  27, 
(fig.)  230;  cover  of  inflammable  ma- 
terial,  (fig.)   231. 

Fireweed,  on  burned-over  forest  range, 
46;  growth  after  burning  of  brush- 
land,  226. 

First  or  early  weed  stage,  108;  char- 
acteristic plants,  115,  (fig.)  116; 
forage  value,  115;  area  surround- 
ing bed  ground,  119,  (fig.)  120; 
indicator  plants,  128;  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  375. 

Fishlake  National  Forest,  loss  of  cat- 
tle from  poisoning,    256. 

Floods,  at  Ephraim,  Utah,  174;  of 
Mississippi  River,  174;  of  Ohio 
River,  174;  on  wagon  road,  (fig.) 
175;  ways  of  controlling,  194;  for 
study  in  grazing  course,   374. 

Forage,  palatabiUty  of  mature,  75; 
causes  of  decline  in  >deld,  104; 
damage  to  timber  according  to 
amount  of,  201,  203,  204;  factor  in 
grazin"-  reconnaissance,  311;  char- 
acter of,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
365 ;  requirements  of  stock,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  371;  growth  re- 
quirements, for  study  in  grazing 
course,  372. 

Forage  acre,  calculated  from  field-map 
data,  320;  defined,  325;  how  de- 
rived, 325;  comparative  value  of 
different  types,  325;  acreage  for 
cattle,  331;  for  sheep,  333;  may 
be  used  in  mapping  sample  plots, 
341;  formula  for  expressing  cover 
in  terms  of,  347;  determining,  on 
protection  plots,  356;  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  378,  387. 

Forage  crop,  depletion  of,  104;  effect 
of  grazing  on,  117;  improved  meth- 
ods of  harvesting,  307;  variation 
in,  for  study  in  grazing  course,  386. 

Forage-crop  areas,  5;  factors  that 
determine,  5. 

Forage  plants,  moisture  requirements, 
53;     seeding    to    cultivated    plants, 


55;  introduced  from  Old  World, 
55;  reseeding  to  native  plants,  56; 
seeded  protection  strip,  (fig.)  57; 
viabihty  of  seed,  57;  two  forms, 
89;  life  period,  90;  introduced 
grasses,  132;  introduced  nongrass- 
fike  herbs,  151;  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  366,  371;  creation  of  new 
varieties,  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 
384- 

Forage  production,  in  early  spring, 
62;  results  of  frequent  harvesting, 
63;  effect  of  frequent  cropping, 
(figs.)  65;  by  various  grazing  sys- 
tems, 72;  essentials  for,  88;  im- 
provement of,  90;  of  wheatgrass 
cover,  in;  of  porcupinegrass-yel- 
lowbrush  cover,  113;  of  second  or 
late  weed  stage,  115;  of  first  or 
early  weed  cover,  115;  on  eroded  and 
on  noneroded  pasture,  (fig.)  118; 
affected  by  burning,  221;  "human" 
factors,  328;  method  of  determin- 
ing ma.ximum,  356;  variation  in, 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  386. 

Forest  fires,  in  Blue  Mountains  of 
Oregon,  216,  (fig.)  217;  history  of, 
216;  fire-swept  area,  (fig.)  218; 
present-day,  219;  beliefs  about, 
220;  effect  on  forage  production, 
221;  liabihty  of,  lessened  on  Na- 
tional Forests,  232;  grazing  tends  to 
minimize,  (fig.)  233;  three  classes 
of,  233. 

Forest  protection,  important  forestry 
subject,  390. 

Forest  Reserves,  authorized,  17. 

Forest  Service,  area  protected  b}^,  for 
five  years,  (fig.)  n;  seeks  to  utilize 
forage  crops,  18;  control  of  graz- 
ing, 20;  considers  use  of  range  a 
privilege,  26;  functions,  28;  permits 
grazing  on  National  Forest  range, 
198;  firing  of  chaparral  lands  by, 
225;  basis  of  grazing  reconnaissance 
used  by,  311;  provides  special  scale 
map,  319;  grazing-capacity  tests 
by,  326;  forestry  courses  for  those 
who  wish  to  enter,  390. 

Forest  utihzation,  important  forestry 
subject,  390. 

Forester,  letter  to,  from  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,   18. 

Formula,  remedy  for  larkspur  poison- 
ing, 258;  for  computing  forage 
acres,  325;  for  e.xpressing  cover  in 
terms  of  forage  acres,  347. 

Fort  Valley  Forest  E.xperiment  Sta- 
tion, range  reseeding  experiments. 
41. 


402 


INDEX 


Fowler's  solution,  for  loco  poisoning, 

Foxglove,  blue,  in  depletion  of  mixed 
grass  and  weed  stage,  113;  in  sec- 
ond or  late  weed  stage,  113;  habit 
of  growth,  (fig.)  114;  on  eroded  and 
on  noneroded  pasture,  (fig.)  118; 
indicator  plant,  129;    in  weed  type, 

(fig-)  314- 

Foxglove-yarrow-sweet  sage  cover,  108; 
follows  mixed  grass  and  weed  stage, 
iii;  associated  species,  113;  dom- 
inant plants,  (fig.)  114;  destruction 
of,  114;    value  as  forage,  115. 

Fungi,  parasitic,  contain  toxic  sub- 
stance, 243-  .  „         - 

Fungus,  ergot,  prevention,  283;  ny 
agaric,   283;    death  cup,   283. 


Game  animals,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,   378. 

Genetics,  auxiliary  subject  in  study 
of  pasture  management,  362;  ap- 
plication  of,   363. 

Geology,  auxiliary  subject  in  study  of 
pasture   management,  361. 

Geraniaceae,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,   369. 

Geranium,  indicator  plant,  129. 

Geranium  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,   369. 

Geranium  viscosissimuni,  indicator  plant, 
129. 

Germany,  intensive  use  of  forest  m, 
23;    prescriptive  rights,  24. 

Germination  chamber,  for  seed  test- 
ing, 165. 

Germinators,  kinds  of,  165. 

Geum,  indicator  plant,   129. 

Geum  Oregonemc,  indicator  plant,  129. 

Gila  National  Forest,  goat  grazing 
on,  210. 

Gilia,  indicator  plant,  128. 

Glycine  hispida,  habitat,  159;  habit 
of  growth,  159,  (fig.)  160. 

Goats,  number  grazed  on  National 
Forests  in  1919  compared  with  1909, 
22;  study  of  effect  of  grazing  on 
timber  reproduction,  210;  as  brush 
destroyers,  227;  on  palatable  browse, 
(fig.)  228;  forage  preferences  of, 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  367; 
forage  requirements  of,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  371,  387;  manage- 
ment of,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
382;  cost  of  production,  for  study 
in   grazing  course,   382;    on  winter 


range,  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 

389- 

Goldenrod,  growth  after  burning  brush- 
land,  226. 

Gooseberry  family,  for  study  in  graz- 
ing course,  369. 

Goosefoot,  or  lamb's-quarters,  indi- 
cator plant,  128. 

Goosefoot  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Gophers,  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 

377- 

Grain  drill,  grass  seeder  attached  to, 
in  seeding  timothy,  141. 

Grain  thresher,  142. 

Grama,  needle,  injurious  species,  289. 

Grama-buffalo  tribe,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  368. 

Gramagrass,  winter  annual  of  South- 
west, 8;  effect  of  grazing  on  timber 
reproduction  on  gramagrass  range, 
204;  mechanically  injurious,  286, 
289;  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Gramagrass,  blue,  in  reseeding  tests, 
40,   43;    moisture   requirements,    54. 

Gramagrass,  hairy,  in  reseeding  tests, 
40. 

Grass,  bent,  name  for  redtop,  139. 

Grass  mixtures,  148,  149. 

Grass,  Randall,  name  for  tall  oatgrass, 
146. 

Grass  seeder,  attached  to  grain  drill, 
for  scattering  timothy  seed,   141. 

Grass,  squirreltail,  mechanically  in- 
jurious, 285,  286. 

Grass,  three-awn,  in  Great  Plains,  6; 
mechanically   injurious,    286,    288. 

Grasses,  in  reseeding  tests,  43;  what 
to  sow,  52;  introduced,  132;  num- 
ber of  species,  132;  mixtures,  148, 
149;  mechanically  injurious,  285; 
native,  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 
367. 

Grassland,  fertilizers  for,  98;  effect  of 
burning  on,  222;   grazing  type,  312, 

(fig-)  313-  ,     . 

Grasslike  plants,  for  study  m  grazing 
course,  368. 

Grazing,  on  public  domain,  4;  desert 
range  used  for  sheep  grazing,  (fig.) 
7;  on  National  Forest  of  yellow 
pine  t>'pe,  (fig.)  19;  in  alpine  fir 
type,  (fig.)  19;  growth  of  industry, 
20;  National  Forest  policy,  23; 
regulated,  value  of,  27;  permits, 
27;  regulated,  results  of,  28;  on 
newly  seeded  lands,  55;  rotation,  61; 
result  of  repeated,  (fig.)  64;  after 
seed  crop  ripens,  67;    destruction  of 


INDEX 


403 


seedlings  by,  67;  systems,  72;  year- 
long, 72;  deferred,  74,  97;  deferred, 
advantages  of,  77;  deferred  crop- 
ping vs.  yearlong,  (fig.)  77;  deferred, 
application  of,  78;  deferred  and  ro- 
tation, plan  for,  79;  deferred,  on 
range  of  "winter  annuals,"  80;  re- 
seeding  complications,  81;  results 
of  faulty  methods,  89;  alternate  vs. 
continuous,  94;  light  vs.  heavy,  95; 
number  of  stock  for  nonsod  pastures, 
96;  mixed,  to  remove  weeds,  102; 
destructive,  how  to  recognize,  104; 
effect  of,  on  development  of  vege- 
tation, 117;  elBciency,  117;  early, 
avoidance  of,  to  prevent  erosion, 
191;  on  woodlands,  197;  effect  of, 
on  timber  reproduction,  198;  dam- 
age according  to  intensity  of,  200, 
(fig.)  201,  203;  on  farm  woodland, 
208;  damage  to  tree  growth,  209; 
effect  of  goat  grazing  on  timber  re- 
production, 210;  essentials  of  effi- 
cient regulation,  213;  affected  by 
fires,  219;  advantage  over  burning 
in  brush  disposal,  228;  relation  to 
fire  control,  (fig.)  230;  tends  to  min- 
imize fires,  (fig.)  233,  235;  proper 
control  necessary,  235;  on  lands 
infested  \vith  poisonous  plants,  244; 
reconnaissance,  308;  factors  de- 
termining length  of  period  for,  312; 
courses  of  study,  360,  364;  destruc- 
tive, indicators  of,  in  grazing  course, 
374;  reconnaissance,  in  grazing 
course,  377;  period  of,  in  grazing 
course,  385;  general  instruction  in, 
in  grazing  course,  389;  subjects  for 
general  instruction,  390;  schools 
for  professional  training  in,  390; 
general  instruction  in,  coordinated 
with  departments  of  botany,  agron- 
omy, and  animal  husbandry,  390. 
Grazing  capacity,  of  nati\e  western 
grounds,  39;  optimum  and  maxi- 
mum, 62;  affected  by  jearlong  graz- 
i"g>  73;  amount  reser\-ed  for  de- 
ferred grazing,  78;  increased  by 
seed  production,  81;  decline  of, 
on  farms,  93;  result  of  alternate 
cropping  on,  94;  decline  in,  due  to 
faulty  management,  104;  indicators 
of  slight  departures  in,  107;  data 
from  which  derived,  318;  study  of, 
by  Forest  Service,  326,  328;  de- 
fined, 328;  steps  to  be  taken  in 
study  of,  330;  of  ranges  and  pastures, 
330;  of  National  Forests  in  cow 
units,  331;    of  public-domain    lands 


in  Western  States,  (fig.)  332;  for 
cattle,  improved  by  sheep  grazing, 
334;  points  to  be  considered  in  study 
of)  339;  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
371,  372,  378. 

Grazing  control,  9;  by  homesteading, 
10;  by  Government,  10;  area  pro- 
tected by  Forest  Service,  (fig.)  11; 
by  creating  National  Forests,  17; 
by  European  Governments,  23;  in 
India,  26;  results  of,  28;  solution 
of  erosion  pasture  problem,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  375. 

Grazing  lands,  economic  importance  of, 
4;  native  western,  39;  reseeding  to 
cultivated  forage  plants,  39;  study 
of,  in  grazing  course,  366. 

Grazing  permits,  27;  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  366. 

Grazing  reconnaissance,  objects  of, 
307,  308;  history  of,  309;  data  and 
facts  obtained  by,  311;  parts  com- 
prised in,  312;  methods  of  obtain- 
ing data,  318;  compared  with  timber 
reconnaissance,  321;  application  to 
pasture  management,  323;  accuracy 
and  limitations  of,  323;  first  step 
in  study  of  grazing  capacity,  330; 
in  range  and  pasture  inspection, 
334;  study  of,  in  grazing  course,  377. 

Grazing  system,  need  of,  61;  as  prac- 
ticed in  West,  72;  yearlong  grazing, 
72;  yearlong  protection,  73;  deferred 
grazing,  74;  advantages  of  deferred 
grazing,  76;  deferred  vs.  yearlong, 
(fig.)  77;  apphcation  of  deferred,  78; 
rotation,  79;  limitations  of  deferred, 
81;  "blanket"  recommendations,  92; 
deferred  grazing  on  nonsod  pastures, 
97;  advantage  of  deferred  grazing 
over  yearlong  protection,  126;  de- 
ferred and  rotation  grazing  to  pre- 
vent erosion,  192;  study  of,  in  grazing 
course,  373. 

Grazing  t>T)es,  classification  of  lands 
into,  312;  represented  on  maps,  317; 
descriptive  report  of  each  type,  318. 

Greasewood,  on  desert  range  of  Great 
Basin,  7. 

Great  Basin,  the,  5;  location,  6;  typ- 
ical desert  range,  (fig.)  7;  native 
vegetation,  7;  irrigation,  8;  study 
of  erosion  at  Grazing  E.xperiment 
Station,  177;  effect  of  burning,  222; 
winter  desert  range,  (fig.)  332;  pasture 
lands,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
365;  investigations  in,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  376. 

Great  Plains,  the,  5;  location,  5;  rain- 


404 


INDEX 


fall  and  water  supply,  6;  native 
vegetation,  6;  pasture  lands,  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  365. 

Greene,  S.  W.,  investigation  of  pas- 
ture management  in  piney  woods, 
224. 

"Gridiron"  method  of  obtaining  data, 
318. 

Griffiths,  David,  tests  in  seedmg  native 
forage  plants,  40;  discussion  of 
effect  of  fire  in  Great  Basin,  222. 

Grossulariaceae,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Ground  fire,  233. 

Grub,  in  head  of  sheep,  276. 

Grubbing,  for  destroying  poisonous 
plants,  247;  for  eradicating  lark- 
spur, 259. 

Gully  erosion,  176;  mfluence  of  melt- 
ing snow,   180. 

Gulierrezia,   sign   of   overgrazing,    106. 


H 


Hairgrass,  in  meadow  type,  312;  in 
grazing  course,  368. 

Hand  seeder,   for  scattering  seed,   50. 

Hanson,  Timothy,  origin  of  name  for 
timothy,    140. 

Hardwood  trees,  more  palatable  than 
coniferous,  209;  damage  to  sprouts 
by   overgrazing,    235. 

Harrow,  brush,  48,  (fig.)  49;  wooden- 
peg  "A,"   48,   (fig.)   49. 

Harrowing,  in  experiments  in  treating 
pasture  lots,  94;  after  scattering 
seed,   102. 

Hay,  grasses,  132;  Kentucky  blue- 
grass,  134;  Canada  bluegrass,  135; 
Bermudagrass,  137;  Hungarian 
brome,  138;  redtop,  140;  timothy, 
141;  orchardgrass,  142;  Johnson- 
grass,  144;  Sudangrass,  144;  oat- 
grass,  146;  containing  squirrcltail 
or  barley  grass,  288;  supplemental 
feed,  335. 

Helenium,  sign  of  overgrazing,   106. 

Helenium  Iloopcsii,  indicator  plant, 
129;  habitat  and  description,  277, 
(fig.)    278;    poisonous  to  stock,   277. 

Helianthella,  single-tlowered,  indicator 
plant,  130. 

Hdianlhclla  nniflora,  indicator  plant, 
130. 

Hemlock,  water,  poisonous  to  stock, 
243;  poison  in  roots,  244;  method 
of  eradicating,  247;  description,  264, 
(fig.  frontis.);  distribution  and  hab- 
itat, 264;  losses  from,  265;  poison- 
ous parts,  265;   symptoms  of  poison- 


ing, 265;  remedies,  266;  prevention 
and  control  of  losses,  266;  summary 
of  symptoms  and   remedies,    270. 

Hensel,  R.  L.,  study  of  acreage  per 
cow  unit,  332. 

Herbs,  broad-leaved,  in  reseeding  tests, 
44;  kinds  to  sow,  52;  in  depletion 
of  mi.xed  grass  and  weed  stage,  in; 
nongrasslike  forage,  151;  broad- 
lea\ed,  in  study  course,  376. 

Herd,  Timothy,  origin  of  name  for 
timothy,   140. 

Herd's  grass,  name  for  redtop,  139; 
name  for  timothy,   140. 

Hilaria  Belangeri,  in  reseeding  tests, 
44. 

Hill,  Robert  R.,  study  of  effect  of  graz- 
ing on  yellow  pine  reproduction, 
202;  use  of  pantograph  by,  345; 
advantages  of  use  of  pantograph 
summarized  by,  346. 

Hitchcock,  A.  S.,  classification  of 
grasses,  132;  on  Kentucky  blue- 
grass,    133. 

Hoe,  "hazel,"  for  grubbing,  259,  (fig.) 
260. 

Hogs,  number  grazed  on  National 
Forests  in  1919  compared  with  1909, 
22;  on  forests  of  Spessart  Moun- 
tains, 25. 

Hog's-potato,  name  for  death  camas, 
261. 

IIolcus  Ilalepensis,  habit  of  growth, 
144;    value  for  hay,   144. 

Holcus  Sorghum  Sndanensis,  habit  of 
growth,  144,  (fig.)  145;  seeding,  145; 
value  for  hay,   145. 

Homesteading,  in  Pacific  and  West- 
ern States,   10. 

Honeysuckle  family,  for  study  in  graz- 
ing course,  369. 

Ilordcac,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 

367. 

Ilordciim,  mechanically  injurious,  285; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  367. 

Ilordciim  Gussoncanum,  mechanically 
injurious,  286. 

Hordciim  jubalum,  mechanically  in- 
jurious, 286,  (fig.)  287. 

Ilordciim  murinum,  mechanically  in- 
jurious, 2S6. 

Ilordciim  nodosum,  on  bed  ground, 
(fig.)  121. 

Horsemint,  indicator  plant,   129. 

Horses,  thrive  on  winter  annual  plants, 
8;  number  grazed  on  National  For- 
ests in  igig  compared  with  1909,  22; 
breed  improved  by  lease  plan,  34; 
water  requirements,  296;  most  val- 
uable pasture  lands  for,  355;    wild, 


INDEX 


405 


for  study  in  grazing  course,  365; 
forage  preferences  of,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  367;  forage  require- 
ments of,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
371,  387;  on  winter  range,  study  of, 
in  grazing  course,  389. 

Host  plants,  281. 

Huckleberry  family,  for  study  in  graz- 
ing course,  369. 

Humus,  accumulation  of,  105;  soil 
rich  in,  retains  moisture,  105;  soil 
that  contains  Uttle,  115;  removal  of, 
171;  percentage  of,  in  eroded  and 
in  noneroded  soil,  184;  preserva- 
tion of,  191;  added  to  soil  by  de- 
composition of  vegetation,  221;  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  227,  228;  destroyed 
by  excessive  grazing,  235. 

Husbandry,  animal,  auxiliary  subject 
in  study  of  pasture  management, 
362;  application  of,  363;  winter- 
range,  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 
388;  general  instruction  in  grazing 
coordinated  with  department  of,  390. 

Hydrocyanic  acid,  formed  in  Johnson- 
grass,  144. 

Hymenoxys  floribunda,  indicator  plant, 
129;  poisonous  to  stock,  276;  habit 
of  growth,  (fig.)  278. 

H\T3odermic  injections,  for  larkspur 
poisoning,  258. 


I 

Idaho,  cattle  and  sheep  grazed  under 
permit,  21;  study  of  effect  of  graz- 
ing on  timber  reproduction,  200; 
investigations  in,  for  study  in  graz- 
ing course,  376. 

Ignition,  loss  on,  in  eroded  and  non- 
eroded  soil,  184. 

Implements,  cultural,  48;  brush  har- 
row, (fig.)  49;  wooden-peg  "A"  har- 
row, (fig.)  49;  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  372. 

India,  grazing  practice  on  forests,  26. 

Indian  bean,  name  for  lupine,   266. 

Indicator  plants,  asters,  (fig.)  loi; 
t>'pe  stages,  107;  use,  127;  method 
of  detecting  improvement  or  de- 
pletion, 127;  reliable  indicators,  128; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  375. 

Indicators,  of  moderate  stages  of  over- 
grazing, 107. 

Injury,  mechanical,  by  plants,  284; 
prevention,  288;  seasonal,  to  timber- 
lands,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
376. 

Inspection,  of  range  and  farm  pasture, 


T,^y,  points  to  be  considered,  334; 
study  of,  in  grazing  course,  378. 

Investigations,  of  methods  of  crop- 
ping, 93 ;  of  effect  of  grazing  on  tim- 
ber reproduction,  results  of,  198; 
of  injuries  from  sheep  grazing,  199; 
on  Payette  National  Forest,  200; 
conclusions  based  on,  211;  on  Na- 
tional Forests,  376;  on  farm  wood- 
lands, 376;    application  of,  376. 

Irrigation,  of  range  and  pasture  lands, 
4;  in  Great  Basin,  8;  dependent  on 
watersheds  of  National  Forests,  172. 

J 

Tack  rabbits,  study  of,  in  grazing  con- 
trol, 377. 

Jacquot,  A.,  on  effect  of  fires  on  veg- 
etation, 229. 

Jardine,  J.  T.,  essentials  of  efficient  reg- 
ulation in  grazing,  213;  methods 
proposed  by,  form  basis  for  Forest 
Service  grazing-reconnaissance  work, 
311;  on  acreage  required,  for  cattle, 
331,  for  sheep,  2,2,2,- 

Johnsongrass,  for  hay  and  pasture  com- 
bined, 132;  habit  of  growth,  144; 
value  for  hay,  144. 

Juncus,  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 
367,  368. 

Junegrass,  name  for  Kentucky  blue- 
grass,  93,  132;  indicator  plant,  129; 
host  plant,  281;  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  368. 

Juniper,  palatable  to  goats,  211;  in 
woodland  type,   (fig.)  316,  317. 


Kafir  corn,  supplemental  feed,  34. 

Kalmia  angustifolia,  poisonous  species, 
274. 

Kalmia  lalifolia,  poisonous  species,  274; 
habit  of  growth,  (fig.)   276. 

Kansas  Experiment  Station,  study  of 
acreage  per  cow  unit,  332. 

Knotweed,  indicator  plant,   128. 

Knotweed,  Douglas,  in  first  or  early 
weed  stage,  115,  (fig.)  116;  on  bed 
ground,  (fig.)  121;  on  range  grazed 
annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  protected 
plot,  (fig.)  123,  124;  on  protected 
plot  and  on  unprotected  range,  125; 
indicator  plant,  128;  growth  after 
burning  brushland,  226;  annual 
plant,  324. 

Koeleria,  host  plant,  281;  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  368. 

Koeleria  cristata,  indicator  plant,  129. 


4o6 


INDEX 


Krameria,  belonging  to  legumes,   151. 
Kubanka,   species  of   wheat,    184. 


Labrador  tea,  poisonous  species,   273, 

(fig.)   275. 
Lambkill,    name    for    sheep    "laurel, 

2  74- 

Lamb's-quarters,  in  first  or  early  weed 
stage,  115,  (fig.)  116;  on  bed  ground, 
(fig.)  121;  on  protected  bed  ground, 
124;    indicator  plant,  128. 

Landslide,  form  of  erosion,  176. 

Larkspur,  cross  section  of  root,  (fig.) 
64;  species  of  poisonous  plant,  243; 
poisonous  until  seed  maturity,  245; 
young  cow  poisoned  by,  (fig.)  246; 
distribution  and  habitat,  256;  losses 
due  to,  256;  poisonous  part,  257; 
amount  required  to  cause  death, 
257;  symptoms  of  poisoning,  257; 
remedies,  258;  method  of  eradi- 
cating, 259;  summary  of  symptoms 
and  remedies,  270. 

Larkspur,  low,  indicator  plant,  129; 
method  of  eradicating,  247;  dis- 
tribution and  habitat,  256;  habit 
of  growth,  Cfig.  frontis.). 

Larkspur,  tall,  on  range  grazed  an- 
nually, (fig.)  122;  on  protected  plot, 
(fig.)  123;  on  protected  plot  and  on 
unprotected  range,  125;  method  of 
eradicating,  247,  259;  distribution 
and  habitat,  256;  habit  of  growth, 
(fig.    frontis.). 

Lalhyrus,  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 
369- 

Lalhyrus  Icucantlms,  in  foxglove-sweet 
sage-yarrow  cover,  114;  on  range 
grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  pro- 
tected plot,  (fig.)  123;  indicator 
plant,  129;   on  chart  plot,  (fig.)  342. 

"Laurel,"    black,    poisonous    species, 

273,  (fig.)   274. 

"Laurel,"  mountain,  poisonous  species, 

274,  (fig.)   276. 

"Laurel,"  sheep,  poisonous  species, 
274. 

"Laurel,"  white,  poisonous  species, 
274,  (fig.)   275. 

"Laurels,"  poisonous  to  stock,  273; 
habitat,  273. 

Ltivauxia  Jlava,  in  foxglove-sweet  sage- 
yarrow  cover,  114;  on  bed  ground, 
(fig.)  121;  on  range  grazed  annually, 
(fig.)  122;  on  protected  area,  (fig.) 
123;    indicator  plant,   129. 

Leasing  system,  in  Texas,  30;  in  Wy- 
oming,  31;     Northern   Pacific   Rail- 


road, 31;  benefits  of,  32,  34;  fenc- 
ing, following  adoption  of,  (fig.)  :i2; 
for  study,  in  grazing  course,  365. 

Ledum  glandulosum,  poisonous  species, 
273- 

Legumes,  cultivated  pasture  plants, 
151- 

Legiiminalcs,  nongrasslike  forage  plants, 
151- 

Leguminosae,  or  legume  family,  151; 
includes  poisonous  species,  243. 

Leontodoii  taraxacum,  on  range  grazed 
annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  protected 
plot,  (fig.)  123;  on  chart  plot,  (fig.) 
342. 

Lepidium  ramosissimum,  indicator 
plant,   128. 

Lespedeza,  valuable  pasture  plant, 
easily  killed  by  fire,   224,   237. 

Lespedeza  striata,  in  reseeding  tests, 
44;  habitat,  164;  value,  164;  seed- 
ing,  164. 

Lesguerella  Vtahensis,  on  eroded  and 
on  noneroded  pastures,  (fig.)   118. 

Leucothoe  Davisiae,  poisonous  species, 
273- 

Level,  Abney,  topographic,  used  in 
field  work,  320. 

Life-history  studies,  in  grazing  course, 
366,  372. 

Life  period,  of  forage  plants,  90. 

Lightning,  fires  started  by,  217,  232. 

Lime,  soil  deficient  in,  95;  to  correct 
acidity,  99;  in  eroded  and  in  non- 
eroded  soil,  184. 

Limestone,  fertilizer,  99. 

Lincoln  National  Forest,  cost  of  res- 
ervoirs on,  304. 

Lion,  mountain,  study  of,  in  grazing 
course,  383. 

List  plot,  347,  (fig.)  348;  advantages 
of,  347- 

Livestock,  importance  of  industry,  4; 
chief  industry  on  native  range  lands, 
6,  7,  8;  on  National  Forests,  18; 
increase  on  National  Forests  from 
1909  to  1919,  22;  control  and  distri- 
bution, factor  in  preventing  erosion, 
192;  losses  from  poison  and  from 
mechanical  injury,  241;  control  of 
losses,  243;  driving  and  herding  in 
relation  to  poisoning,  247;  water 
requirements,  296;  methods  of  hand- 
ling, chief  object  of  grazing  recon- 
naissance, 323;  suggestions  for  in- 
struction in  production  of,  360; 
schedule  of  subjects  for  studying 
management  of,  361;  course  in  his- 
tory of  development  of  domestic, 
362;    improved   handling  of,   to   be 


INDEX 


407 


studied  in  grazing  course,  364;  eco- 
nomics, to  be  studied  in  grazing 
course,  364;  center  of  production, 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  365; 
number  and  classes  grazed,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  366;  forage  pref- 
erences of,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  367,  383;  suitability  of 
range  to,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
371;  management  of,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  379;  cost  of  pro- 
duction, for  study  in  grazing  course, 
382;  reproduction  of,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  387;  improving  grade 
of,  for  study  in  grazing  course,  387; 
prevention  of  losses  of,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  387;  range  and  pas- 
ture management,  general  instruc- 
tion in,  3QO. 

Lobelia,   name  for  death  camas,   261. 

Loco,  poisonous  to  stock,  243;  method 
of  eradicating,  247,  254;  distri- 
bution of  two  species,  (fig.)  251; 
symptoms  of  poisoning,  252;  locoed 
horse,  (fig.)  253;  locoed  steer,  (fig.) 
253;  remedies  for  poisoning,  253; 
loco  disease  in  goat,  (fig.)  254,  in 
sheep,  (fig.)  254;  name  for  lupine, 
266;  summary  of  symptoms  and 
remedies,  270. 

Loco,  Lambert's, same  as  white  loco,  250. 

Loco,  low,  indicator  plant,  130. 

Loco,  purple,  destructive  species,  250; 
losses  caused  by,  252;  eradication 
of,  255. 

Loco,  rattleweed,  same  as  white  loco, 
250. 

Loco,  stemless,  same  as  white  loco,  250. 

Loco,  Texas,  destructive  species,   250. 

Loco,  white,  description,  250;  habit 
of  growth,  (fig.  frontis.);  distribution 
and  habitat,  250,  (fig.)  251;  losses 
caused  by,  252;   eradication  of,  255. 

Loco,  woolly,  description,  250;  habit  of 
growth,  (fig.  frontis.);  distribution 
and  habitat,  250,  (fig.)  251. 

Lolium  Italiciim,  habitat,  143;  seeding, 
144. 

Lolium  perenne,  in  reseeding  tests,  44; 
habitat,  143;  habit  of  growth,  (fig.) 
143;  seeding,  143. 

Loss,  to  stockmen,  62,  105;  of  seed- 
lings, 67;  from  floods,  174;  from 
fires,  219;  in  forage  }ne\d  caused  by 
fires,  223;  of  fertility,  caused  by 
fires,  230;  from  various  causes,  241; 
from  poisonous  plants,  241,  244; 
from  loco,  241,  252;  control  and 
prevention  of,  254,  259,  266,  269; 
from     larkspur,    256;     from    death 


camas,  262;  from  water  hemlock,  265; 
from  lupine,  267;  from  woody  aster, 
276;  from  wild  cherry,  279;  from 
fern,  281;  from  mechanically  in- 
jurious plants,  286;  prevention  of, 
in  study  course,  387. 

Lousewort,  growth  after  burning  brush- 
land,  226. 

Lovegrass,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Lucerne,  name  for  alfalfa,  151;  hab- 
itat, 157;  seeding,  rtcv;  value  as 
forage,    157. 

Lupine,  poisonous  to  livestock,  243; 
poison  in  pods,  244;  when  to  graze, 
244;  method  of  eradicating,  247; 
distribution  and  habitat,  266;  loss- 
es from,  267;  poisonous  parts,  267; 
amount  required  to  cause  death, 
268;  symptoms  of  poisoning,  268; 
sheep  poisoned  by,  (fig.)  268;  reme- 
dies for  poisoning,  269;  summary  of 
sjmptoms  and  remedies,  270. 

Lupine,  mountain,  indicator  plant,  130. 

Lupiniis,  poisonous  to  livestock,  243; 
distribution  and  habitat,  266;  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  370. 

Lupinus  alpestris,  indicator  plant,  130; 
habit  of  growth,   (fig.  frontis.). 


M 


Madia  glomerala,  in  first  or  early 
weed  stage,  (fig.)  116;  indicator 
plant,  128. 

Mahogany,  birchleaf,  sign  of  over- 
grazing,   106. 

Mahogany,  mountain,  effect  of  fire 
on,  226. 

Mallow  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Malvaceae,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
369- 

Mannagrass,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  368. 

Manti  Forest,  rainstorm,  174;  erosion 
area,  (fig.)  180. 

Manure,  application  of,  99;  as  top- 
dressing,  100;    fertilizing  value,  222. 

Map,  topographic,  for  grazing  recon- 
naissance, 312,  320;  for  timber  re- 
connaissance, 318;  transcribing  field- 
map  data,  320;  use  in  forest  fires, 
323;  indispensable  in  management 
of  lands  and  stock,  334;  form  for 
chart  plot,  343,  (fig.)  344;  locating 
quadrat  on,  354;  use  in  grazing 
course,   378. 

Mapping,  season  and  frequency  of, 
354- 


4o8 


INDEX 


Meadow,  grazing  t>-pe,  312,  (fig.)  313. 
Meadow-grass,     smooth-stalked,    name 

for  Kentucky  bluegrass,   132. 
Meat,  value  of,  in  diet,  3;   production, 

and   consumption   of,   for   study   in 

grazing  course,  364. 
Mechanical    injury,    by    plants,    284; 

prevention,  288. 
Mechanically  injurious  plants,   284. 
Medic,   toothed,   or  bur  clover,    (fig.) 

156;    habitat,  156,  157;    forage  val- 
ue, 157;    seeding,  157. 
Medicago,  habitat,   155. 
Medicago  Arabiia,  habitat,   156. 
Medicago  denticulala,  in  reseeding  test, 

44. 
Medicago    hispida,  habitat,   156,   (fig.) 

156;  forage  value,  156;  seeding,  157. 
Medicago  saliva,  habitat,  157;   seeding, 

157;   forage  value,  157. 
Melanlliaceae,    family   containing    poi- 
sonous   plants,    242;     for  study  in 

grazing  course,  369. 
Melica,   for   study   in   grazing   course, 

368. 
Melica   btdbosa,   indicator  plant,    129. 
Melica  speciabilis,  indicator  plant,  129. 
Melicgrass,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 

368. 
Melilolus  alba,  habit  of  growth,  (fig.) 

154,    155;     habitat,    155;      seeding, 

Menziesia,   smooth,  poisonous  species, 

273,  (fig.)  274. 
Menziesia    glabella,   poisonous  species, 

273,  (fig.)  274. 
Mertensia,  Sampson's,  indicator  plant, 

Mertensia  Sampsonii,  indicator  plant, 
129. 

Mesa  lands,  reseeding  tests  on,  40. 

Mesquitegrass,  early  grass  of  South- 
west, 8;  in  reseeding  tests,  44;  mois- 
ture requirements,  54. 

Meteorology,  auxiliary  subject  in  study 
of  pasture  management,  362;  ap- 
plication of,  363. 

Methods,  for  obtaining  reconnaissance 
data,  318;  "gridiron,"  318;  traverse- 
sketching,   319;     triangulation,    320. 

Microskris  micrantha,  indicator  plant, 
128. 

Milkweed,  poisonous  to  stock,   272. 

Milkweed,  whorled,  habitat  and  de- 
scription,   (fig.)    272,    273. 

Mimosa,  or  sensitive-plant,  belonging 
to  legumes,   151. 

Mississippi  River,  floods,  174. 

Mixed  grass  and  weed  stage,  107; 
dominant    species,    (fig.)     110;     de- 


veJopment  of,  in;  destruction  of, 
113;  value  as  forage,  113;  area 
surrounding  bed  ground,  119,  (fig.) 
120;  indicator  plants,  129;  bisect 
of  vegetation  on  high  mountain 
range,  (fig.)  350;  for  study  in  graz- 
ing course,  374. 

Moisture  requirements  of  cultivated 
forage  plants,   53. 

Monkshood,  name  for  aconite,   279. 

Monolcpis,  indicator  plant,  128. 

Monolcpis  NuUalliana,  indicator  plant, 
128. 

Montana,  cattle  and  sheep  grazed 
under  permit,  21. 

Morphology,  auxiliary  subject  in  study 
of   pasture   management,   361. 

Mowing,  prevents  weeds  from  spread- 
ing,   lOI. 

Mucuna  utilis,  in  full  pod,  (fig.)  162; 
habitat,  163;  habit  of  growth,  163; 
seeding,    163;     forage   value,    164. 

Muhlenbergia,  in  Great  Plains,  6; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  368. 

Muhlenbergia,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  368. 

Munger,  Thornton  T.,  study  of  effects 
of  grazing  on  timber  reproduction 
in  Oregon,  199. 

Mushrooms,  poisonous  to  livestock, 
243- 

Muskrat  weed,  name  for  water  hem- 
lock, 264. 

Musquash  root,  name  for  water  hem- 
lock,   264. 

Mustard,  tansy,  in  first  or  early  weed 
stage,  115,  (fig.)  116;  on  eroded 
and  on  noneroded  pasture,  (fig.)  118; 
on  bed  ground,  (fig.)  121;  on  range 
grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  pro- 
tected plot,  (fig.)  123;  on  protected 
bed  ground,  124;  on  protected  plot 
and  on  unprotected  range,  125;  in- 
dicator plant,   128. 

Mystery-grass,  name  for  death  camas, 
261. 


N 


National  Forests,  area,  17;  object  of 
establishment,  17;  policy  of  adminis- 
tration, 18;  livestock  on,  18;  graz- 
ing and  timber  production  in  yel- 
low pine  t>'pe,  (fig.)  19;  grazing  in 
alpine  fir  type,  (fig.)  19;  growth  of 
grazing  industry  on,  20;  grazing 
policy,  23,  27;  administration  of, 
by  European  Governments,  23; 
cattle  range,  moderately  grazed, 
(fig.)    24;    use   of,   a  privilege,    26; 


INDEX 


409 


control  of,  in  India,  26;  dependence 
of  agriculture  on,  26;  reseeding  ex- 
periments on,  43;  burned-over  for- 
est range,  (fig.)  46;  relation  to  irri- 
gation, 172;  liability  of  fires,  232; 
grazing  reconnaissance  on,  309; 
acreage  required  per  cow  unit,  331; 
acreage  required  for  sheep,  :iis'7 
water  supply  ample  on  ranges  of, 
355;  creation  of,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  365,  366;  function  and  re- 
sults of,  in  regulating  grazing,  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  366;  in- 
vestigations on,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  376. 
Needle-and-thread,    injurious    species, 

288;    description,   288. 
Needlegrass,  in  Great  Plains,  6;    me- 
chanically  injurious,    286,    288;    for 
study  in  grazing  course,  368. 
Needlegrass,    small,    on    eroded    and 

noneroded  pasture,  118. 
Neopieris    mariana,  poisonous  species, 

274. 
New   Genesee   Farmer,   introduced   Al- 

sike  clover,  152. 
New  Mexico,  cattle  and  sheep  grazed 
under  permit,  21;  study  of  effect  of 
grazing  on  timber  reproduction,  202; 
overgrazing  and  trampling  near 
watering  place,  (fig.)  297;  studies 
of  grazing  capacity,  329;  investi- 
gations in,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  376. 
Nevada,  cattle  and  sheep  grazed  under 

permit,  21. 
Nitrifying  bacteria,  destroyed  by  fire, 

226. 
Nitrogen,    essential    part    of    diet,    3; 
ingredient  of  fertilizer,  99;   in  eroded 
and  in  noneroded  soil,  184;   percent- 
age returned  to  soil  in  manure,  222. 
Nitrogenous  materials,  in  the  diet,  3; 
in  the  soil,  caused  by  decomposition 
of  vegetation,   221. 
Northern   Pacific   Railroad   Company, 
land  grants  to,  30;   leases,  31;    leas- 
ing   system,    for    study    in    grazing 
course,  366. 
Northwest,    the,    pasture    lands,    for 
study   in   grazing   course,    365;     in- 
vestigations in,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  376. 


Oak,  po'sonous  to  stock,   273. 
Oak,  Gambel,  poisonous   species,    273. 
Oak,  scrub,  in  desert  range  of  Great 
Basin,    7. 


Oak,  shinnery,  poisonous  species,  273. 

Oakley,  R.  A.,  investigation  of  methods 

of  cropping  and  treating  pasture,  93. 

Oatgrass,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 

368. 
Oatgrass,  tall  meadow,  in  reseeding 
test,  44;  amount  to  sow  and  cost, 
5S;  moisture  requirements,  54;  for 
hay  and  pasture  combined,  132; 
habit  of  growth,  (fig.)  146;  value, 
146. 
Oats,     wild,     semi-domesticated,     55; 

on  winter  ranges,  80. 
Oestrus  ovis,  in  sheep,  276. 
Ohio    River,    floods,    174. 
Old    maid's-bonnet,   name  for  lupine, 

266. 
Onagraceae,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 

369- 
Onion,   annual  plant,   324. 
Oniongrass,  indicator  plant,  129. 
Oniongrass,    showy,    indicator    plant, 

129. 
Orchardgrass,    in    reseeding    tests,    41, 
44,  45,  47;   amount  to  sow  and  cost, 
Sy,    moisture  requirements,   54;    on 
permanent    pasture,    88;     habit    of 
growth,    90;     for   hay   and    pasture 
combined,    132;     habit    of    growth, 
(fig.)    142;    mixture   for   permanent 
pasture,  148,  149. 
Oregon,  cattle  and  sheep  grazed  under 
permit,  21;    study  of  effect  of  graz- 
ing   on    timber    reproduction,    199; 
investigations  in,  for  study  in  graz- 
ing course,  376. 
Orthocarpus,  Tohnie's,  in  first  or  early 
weed  stage,  115,  (fig.)  116;  indicator 
plant,  128. 
Orthocarpus   Tolmiei,  in  first  or  early 
weed  stage,  115,  (fig.)  116;  indicator 
plant,  128. 
Oryzopsis,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 

368. 
Overgrazing,  cause  and  effect,  10; 
area  protected  for  five  years,  (fig.) 
11;  carrying  capacity  of  pasture,  12; 
denuded  summer  range,  (fig.)  13; 
cost  of,  61;  cause  of  depletion  of 
bunchgrass  lands,  95;  on  nonsod 
pastures,  96;  how  to  recognize  and 
correct,  104;  conspicuous  signs  of, 
106;  indicators  of  moderate,  107; 
relation  to  erosion,  173;  on  Manti 
Forest,  174;  erosion  due  to,  (fig.) 
183;  overgrazing  and  erosion,  (fig.) 
190;  avoidance  of,  to  prevent 
erosion,  191;  damage  to  tree  re- 
production by,  235;  cause  of  soil 
depletion,  235;   cause  of  loss  by  poi- 


4IO 


INDEX 


son  plants,  242,  244;  affected  by  dis- 
tance from  watering  place,  (fig.) 
297;     for   study   in   grazing   course, 

365,  374- 

Oxylropis,  poisonous  to  livestock,  243; 
description,  250;  for  study  in  graz- 
ing course,  370. 

Oxylropis  Lambcrlii,  description,  250; 
habit  of  growth,  (fig.  frontis.);  dis- 
tribution and  habitat,  250,  (fig.) 
251. 

P 

Pacific  slope,  pasture  lands,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  365. 

Palatability,  of  mature  forage,  75; 
studies  of,  in  Blue  Mountains  of 
Oregon,  76;  factor  in  good  pasture, 
87;  affected  by  frosts,  etc.,  88;  of 
primitive  plant  forms,  106;  height 
growth  in  relation  to,  on  fenced 
and  on  unfenced  areas,  126;  of  Ber- 
mudagrass,  137;  of  tall  oatgrass, 
146;  of  white  clover,  153;  of  bur 
clover,  156;  of  poisonous  plants,  243; 
to  be  considered  in  study  of  pasture 
revegetation,  339,  340;  percentage 
of,  on  protection  plots,  356;  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  373. 

Panhandle,  of  Te.xas,  use  of  wells  in, 
304- 

Panicularia,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  368. 

Pantograph,  for  mapping  chart  plots, 
(fig.)  345;  disadvantage  of,  346; 
advantages  of,  346. 

Papilionaceae,  older  name  for  Faba- 
ceac,  151. 

Papilionoidcac,  subfamily    name,    151. 

Parasites,   in   sheep  manure,    100. 

Parsley,  spotted,  name  for  water  hem- 
lock, 264. 

Parsley  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Parsnip,  name  for  water  hemlock,  264. 

Parsnip  family,  includes  poisonous 
species,  243. 

Partridge-peas,  belonging  to  legumes, 
151- 

Pasture,  extent  of  lands  used  for,  4; 
benefits  of  leasing  system  on,  33; 
revegetation,  66;  improvement,  86; 
what  is  good,  87;  kinds  of,  88;  rea- 
sons for  deterioration  of,  88;  "blan- 
ket" recommendations  for  grazing, 
92;  experiments  on  bluegrass,  in 
Virginia,  93;  nonsod,  96;  farm,  in 
good  condition,  (fig.)  96;  fertility 
of,  maintained  by  fattening  animals, 
100;     invasion   of,    by   asters,    (fig.) 


loi;  depiction  of,  104;  vegetation  on 
eroded  and  on  noneroded,  (fig.)  118; 
how  to  recognize  depletion  or  im- 
provement of,  127;  mixtures  for 
temporary  and  for  permanent,  148; 
points  to  be  considered  in  study  of 
revegetation,  339;  importance  of 
pasture  li\'estock  production,  360; 
improved  handling  of,  to  be  studied 
in  grazing  course,  364;  woodland,  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  364;  classifi- 
cation of  lands,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  365 ;  plants,  native,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  366;  plants,  broad- 
leaved,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
369;  farm,  study  of,  in  grazing 
course,  373;  factors  that  determine 
value,  373. 

Pasture  management,  field  for  research 
work,  93;  bluegrass  pastures,  93; 
nonsod  pastures,  96;  weed  control, 
100;  destructive  practice,  117;  annual 
burning,  no  place  in,  225;  application 
of  grazing  reconnaissance  data  to, 
323;  suggestions  for  instruction  in, 
360;  schedule  of  subjects  for  study- 
ing, 361;  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
'364,  371;  of  sod  and  nonsod  lands, 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  373; 
general  instruction   in,   390. 

Pathology,  plant,  auxiliary  subject  in 
study  of  pasture  management,  361. 

Payette  National  Forest,  study  of 
effects  of  grazing  on  timber  repro- 
duction on,  200. 

Pea,  blue,  name  for  lupine,  266. 

Pea,  common  garden,  belonging  to 
legumes,    151. 

Pea  family,  nongrasslike  forage  plants, 
151;      includes     poisonous     species, 

243- 

Pearson,  G.  A.,  reseeding  experiments, 
41;  study  of  grazing  damage  to 
yellow   pine    reproduction,    204. 

Peas,  winter  annual  of  Southwest,  8. 

Peas,  Canadian  field,  growth  on  erod- 
ed and  on  noneroded  soil,  184,  (fig.) 
185;  relative  water  requirements, 
(fig.)  186;  summary  of  study,  (fig.) 
188. 

Peavine,  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 
369. 

Peavine,  low,  in  destruction  of  fox- 
glove-sweet sage-yarrow  cover,  114; 
on  range  grazed  annually,  (fig.) 
122;  on  protected  plot,  (fig.)  123; 
on  protected  plot  and  on  unprotect- 
ed range,  125;    indicator  plant,  129. 

Pedicularis,  growth  after  burning  brush- 
land,  226. 


INDEX 


411 


Penlslemon,  in  weed  type,  (fig.)  314- 

Penlstemon  procerus,  in  depletion  of 
mixed  grass  and  weed  stage,  113; 
habit  of  growth,  (fig.)  114;  on  erod- 
ed and  on  noneroded  pasture,  (fig.) 
118;  indicator  plant,  129;  on  chart 
plot,  (fig.)  342. 

Peppergrass,  indicator  plant,  128. 

Peritonitis,  caused  by  grasses,   288. 

Permanent  pasture,  88;  grass  mixture 
for,  148. 

Petroleum,  used  in  killing  poisonous 
plants,    247. 

Phleum,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Phleum  praknse,  origin  of  name,  140; 
habit  of  growth,    141. 

Phosphate,  an  ingredient  of  fertilizer, 
99. 

Phosphoric  acid,  in  eroded  and  in  non- 
eroded  soil,  184;  percentage  re- 
turned to  soil  in  manure,  222. 

Photograph,  to  be  taken  of  chart  plot, 

345- 

Physiology,  auxiliary  subject  in  study 
of   pasture   management,    361. 

Physostigmine  salicylate,  for  larkspur 
poisoning,   258. 

Pilocarpine  hydrochloride,  for  larkspur 
poisoning,  258. 

Pine,  lodgepole,  for  troughs,  300. 

Pine,  piiion,  cropped  hghtly  by  goats, 
211;  in  woodland  type,  (fig.)  316, 
317- 

Pine,  sugar,  injury  to,  by  various 
agencies,  199;  injury  to,  by  stock, 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  376. 

Pine,  yellow,  t>'pe  of  National  Forest, 
moderate  grazing  and  timber  pro- 
duction on,  (fig.)  19;  on  cattle 
range  moderately  grazed,  (fig.)  24; 
forage  on,  198;  damage  to,  by  va- 
rious agencies,  199;  tree  severely 
browsed  by  sheep,  (fig.)  201;  effect 
of  grazing  on  reproduction  in  Ari- 
zona and  New  Mexico,  202;  injury 
by  cattle  browsing,  (fig.)  203;  study 
of  grazing  damage  on  Coconino 
Forest,  204;  eilcct  of  goat  grazing 
on,  210;  used  for  troughs,  300; 
injury  to,  by  stock,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  376. 

Pingue,  name  for  Colorado  rubber- 
weed,  276;    (fig.)  278. 

Pifion  pine,  cropped  lightly  by  goats, 
211;  in  woodland  type.,  (fig.)  316, 
317- 

Piping,  spring  or  seep  water,  299. 

Pittsburg,  floods  at,  174. 

Planetable,  used  in  field  work,  320. 


Plant  collection,  for  grazing  recon- 
naissance, 318. 

Plant  cover,  protection  against  erosion, 
171;  erosion  resulting  from  de- 
struction of,   (fig.)    180. 

Plant  foods,  in  eroded  and  in  non- 
eroded  soils  of  same  type,  184. 

Plant  growth,  relation  of  erosion  to, 
182;  study  of,  on  eroded  and  on 
noneroded  soil,  184;  summary  of, 
(fig.)   188. 

Plant  Industry,  Bureau  of,  studies  of 
grazing  capacity,  328. 

Plant  succession,  type  stages  of,  107; 
study  of,  in  grazing  course,  384. 

Planlago  Tiveedyi,  on  bed  ground,  (fig.) 
121;  on  range  grazed  annually, 
(fig.)  122;  on  protected  plot,  (fig.) 
123. 

Plantain,  winter  annual  of  Southwest, 
8;  on  bed  ground,  (fig.)  121;  on 
range  grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122; 
on  protected  plot,  (fig.)  123;  on 
protected  plot  and  on  unprotected 
range,   125. 

Plants,  cultivated  grasses  and  other 
herbaceous,  in  reseeding  tests,  43; 
cultivated  forage,  moisture  require- 
ments of,  53;  introduced.  55;  natixe 
forage,  reseeding  to,  56;  herbaceous, 
yield  of,  60;  pasture  and  hay,  89; 
indicator,  107;  cultivated,  classi- 
fication of,  132;  nongrasslike  for- 
age, 151;  herbaceous,  growth  of, 
after  fire,  226;  stock-poisoning, 
241,  250;  poisonous  and  mechani- 
cally injurious,  272;  mechanically 
injurious,  284;  forage,  growth  re- 
quirements, 366;  grasslike,  distin- 
guished from  true  grasses,  in  grazing 
course,  367;  broad-leaved  pasture,  for 
study,  369;  objectionable,  in  graz- 
ing course,  370;  poisonous  species, 
for  study,  370;  collection  and  pres- 
ervation of  specimens,  371;  forage, 
new  varieties  of,  in  grazing  course, 
384;  native  pasture,  general  instruc- 
tion in,  390. 

Plots,  sample,  permanent,  340;  kinds 
of,  340;  how  named,  341;  chart 
plot,  341;  mapping  chart  plot, 
(fig.)  342;  list  plot,  347;  advantages 
of  list  plot,  347;  denuded  or  depop- 
ulated, 349;  other,  351;  special 
guide  tapes,  351;  plan  for  staking 
permanent,  (fig.)  353;  season  and 
frequency  of  mapping,  354;  pro- 
tection, 355;  dimensions,  356,  (fig.) 
357;  size  favored  by  writer,  358; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  385. 


412 


INDEX 


Plummer,  Fred  G.,  on  forest  fires,  218. 

Poa,  in  mixed  grass  and  weed  stage, 
iii;  often  killed  by  fire,  223,  237; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  368. 

Poa  compressa,  habit  of  growth,  135; 
forage  value,  135. 

Poa   Nevadcnsis,  indicator  plant,   130. 

Poa  pratcnsis,  habit  of  growth,  132; 
(fig.)  133;  resembles  Canada  blue- 
grass,  135;   on  chart  plot,  (fig.)  342. 

Poa   Sandbergii,   indicator   plant,    130. 

Poison,  definition  of  term,  242. 

Poison  sego,  name  for  death  camas,  261. 

Poison  weed,  common  name  for  lark- 
spur, 255. 

Poisoning,  driving  and  herding  stock, 
as  related  to,  247;  by  loco,  symp- 
toms of,  252;  locoed  horse,  (fig.) 
253;  locoed  steer,  (fig.)  253;  rem- 
edies, 253;  locoed  goat,  (fig.)  254; 
locoed  sheep,  (fig.)  254;  control 
and  prevention  of  loss  by,  254,  259, 
266,  269;  symptoms  of  larkspur  poi- 
soning, 257;  death  camas,  262; 
s>Tnptoms,  263;  water  hemlock, 
265;  s>Tnptoms,  265;  lupine,  267; 
sjTTiptoms,  268;  summary  of  symp- 
toms and  remedies,  270;  milkweed, 
273;  oak,  273;  "laurel,"  273; 
woody  aster,  275;  rubberweed,  276; 
sneezeweed,  277;  aconite,  279;  cher- 
ry, 279;  fern,  281;  ergot,  281;  fly 
agaric,  283;  control  of,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  370. 

Poisonous  plants,  cause  of  loss  of  live- 
stock, 241;  ancient  knowledge  of, 
242;  families  of,  242;  palatability 
of,  243;  methods  of  eradicating, 
246;  driving  and  herding  stock  as 
related  to  poisoning,  247;  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  370,  371;  con- 
trol of,  in  grazing  course,  387. 

Polygonum  avictdare,  indicator  plant, 
128. 

Polygonum  Douglasii,  in  first  or  early 
weed  stage,  115,  (fig.)  116;  on  bed 
ground,  (fig.)  121;  on  range  grazed 
annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  protected 
plot,  (fig.)  123;  indicator  plant,  128; 
growth  after  burning  brushland,  226; 
annual  plant,  324;  on  chart  plot, 
(fig.)   342. 

Pomaceae,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
369-  . 

Porcupinegrass,  small,  in  mixed  grass 
and  weed  stage,  108,  (fig.)  no;  on 
range  grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122; 
on  protected  plot,  (fig.)  123;  on 
protected  plot  and  on  unprotected 
range,  125;    indicator  plant,  129. 


Porcupinegrass-yellowbrush  cover,  107; 
succeeds  whcatgrass  cover,  108; 
dominant  species,  (fig.)  no;  plants 
that  make  up  t>pe,  in;  destruc- 
tion of,  113;   value  as  forage,  113. 

Potash,  as  fertilizer,  99;  muriate  of, 
100;  in  eroded  and  in  noneroded 
soil,  184;  percentage  returned  to 
soil  in  manure,  222. 

Potassium    nitrate,    as   fertilizer,    100. 

Potassium  permanganate,  for  larkspur 
poisoning,  258. 

Polentilla  filipes,  indicator  plant,   129. 

Prairie  dog,  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 
377- 

Prescott  National  Forest,  cost  of  res- 
ervoirs on,  304. 

Primrose,  evening,  in  destruction  of 
foxglove-sweet  sage-yarrow  cover, 
114;  on  bed  ground,  (fig.)  121;  on 
range  grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122; 
on  protected  plot,  (fig.)  123;  on 
protected  plot  and  on  unprotected 
range,  125;  indicator  plant,  129; 
family,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
369- 

Profits,  small  operator  compared  with 
large  operator,  307. 

Protection  plots,  355. 

Proteids,  Fabaceae  rich  in,  151. 

Protein,  content  of  soybeans,  159; 
content  of  Japan  clover,  164. 

Prunus  demissa,  poisonous  to  stock, 
279,   (fig.)   281. 

Prussic  acid,  in  leaves  of  wild  cherry, 
279. 

Pseudocymopterus  Tidestromii,  in  de- 
struction of  foxglove-sweet  sage- 
yarrow  cover,  114;  on  eroded  and  on 
noneroded  pasture,  (fig.)  118;  indi- 
cator plant,  129. 

Pteridium  aquilinum,  poisonous  to 
stock,  279,  (fig.)  282. 

Public  lands,  location,  and  extent, 
4,  10;  homesteading  on,  10;  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  364. 

Pulse  family,  nongrasslike  forage  plants, 
151;  includes  poisonous  species,  243; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  369. 

Purshia,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106. 


Quadrat,    form   of   sample   plot,   341; 

square  meter,  349. 
Quaker's-bonnet,  name  for  lupine,  266. 
Qucrcus,  poisonous  to  stock,  273. 
Qucrcus    Gambclii,    poisonous    species, 

273- 
Querctts  Havardi,  poisonous  species,  273. 


INDEX 


413 


Rainfall,  factor  in  forage  growth,  5; 
on  Great  Plains,  6;  in  Great  Basin, 
7;  in  Rocky  Mountain  region,  8; 
on  native  western  range,  39;  mi- 
gration of,  171;  factor  in  erosion, 
177,  179;  factor  in  determining 
number   and   distribution   of   stock, 

Rainstorm,  on  Manti  National  For- 
est, 174;  study  of,  in  Wasatch 
Mountains,  179. 

Range,  history,  to  be  studied  in  graz- 
ing course,  364;  industry,  develop- 
ment of,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
36s;  division  of,  into  natural- type 
units,  385. 

Range  and  pasture  lands,  extent  and 
location  of,  4;  five  regions,  5;  use 
of,  a  privilege,  26;  leasing  system, 
30;  reseeding  native  western  range, 
39;  control  of  erosion  on,  171; 
water  a  necessit)-,  295;  need  for 
grazing  control,  310;  grazing  ca- 
pacity of,  330;  inspection  of,  333; 
management  of,  for  study  in  graz- 
ing course,  371. 

Range  land,  stripped  of  good  soil,  (fig.) 
181;  effect  of  burning,  in  South, 
223;  for  study,  in  grazing  course, 
364;  suitabiUty  of,  for  different  class- 
es of  stock,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  371. 

Range,  summer,  in  the  Rockies,  (fig.) 
9;  denuded  of  vegetation  during 
"free-for-all"  grazing  period,  (fig.) 
13;  forage  available  after  frosts,  75; 
seed  maturity  on,  78;  study  of  soil 
in  spruce-fir  type,   183. 

Range  wars,  12;  use  of  fires  in,  219; 
study  of,  in  grazing  course,  365. 

Range,  winter,  in  Southwest,  8;  de- 
ferred grazing  on,  80. 

Ranunculaccac,  family  of  poisonous 
plants,  243;  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Rattleweed,  name  for  species  of  loco, 
250,   (fig.  frontis.). 

Reconnaissance,  grazing,  object  of, 
308;  history  of,  309;  data  and  facts 
obtained  by,  311;  parts  comprised 
in,  312;  methods  of  obtaining  data, 
318;  compared  with  timber  recon- 
naissance, 321;  application  to  pas- 
ture management,  323;  accuracy 
and  limitations  of,  323;  first  step 
in  study  of  grazing  capacity,  330; 
in  range  and  pasture  inspection, 
334;  study  of,  in  grazing  course,  377. 


Reconnaissance,  timber,  aid  in  graz- 
ing reconnaissance,  311;  map  for, 
318;  compared  with  grazing  recon- 
naissance, 321. 

Redtop,  in  reseeding  tests,  41,  43,  44. 
45)  47>  5°;  yields  well  on  wet  soil, 
52;  amount  to  sow  and  cost,  53; 
moisture  requirements,  54;  intro- 
duced from  Old  World,  55;  on  per- 
manent pasture,  88,  132;  for  hay 
and  pasture  combined,  132;  habit 
of  growth,  (fig.)  139;  seeding,  140; 
in  mixtures,  148,  149;  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  368. 

Redtop-timothy  tribe,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  368. 

Reedgrass,  on  burned-over  forest 
range,  (fig.)  46;  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  368. 

Reedgrass,  sweet,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  368. 

Regeneration,  study  of,  in  grazing 
course,  367. 

Remedies,  for  loco  poisoning,  253; 
for  larkspur  poisoning,  258;  for 
death  camas  poisoning,  263;  for 
water  hemlock  poisoning,  266;  for 
lupine  poisoning,  269;  summary  of, 
270;  for  "laurel"  poisoning,  275; 
for  sneezeweed  poisoning,  278;  for 
ergot  poisoning,  282;  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  370. 

Research,  farm  pasture,  field  for,_  93; 
methods,  339;  phases  of  animal 
problems,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,   383. 

Reseeding,  on  native  western  range, 
39;  tests  in  southern  Arizona,  40; 
in  northern  Arizona,  41;  on  moun- 
tain lands,  42;  on  National  Forest 
range,  43;  results  of  tests,  45;  on 
burned-over  forest  range,  (fig.)  46; 
season  for,  47;  seasonal  tests  on 
mountain  range  lands,  (fig.)  47; 
causes  of  failure,  48;  scattering  the 
seed,  50;  elevational  limitation,  50; 
what  grasses  to  sow,  52;  amount 
to  sow,  52;  cost  of,  S3,  54;  mois- 
ture requirements,  53;  seeding  to  a 
mixture,  54;  where  seeding  pays, 
55;  seeding  to  native  forage  plants, 
56;  "strip"  seeding,  57;  protected 
strip,  (fig.)  57;  natural,  60;  by  de- 
ferred grazing,  78;  plan  adopted  by 
California  stockmen,  81;  compli- 
cations, 81;  of  bed  grounds,  120; 
artificial,  to  native  forage  plants, 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  372; 
natural  and  artificial,  study  of,  in 
grazing  course,  386. 


414 


INDEX 


Reservoir,  earth,  in  Arizona,  (fig.)  303. 
Reservoirs,  location  of,  302;    cost  of, 

303- 

Revegetation,  by  natural  reseeding, 
60;  plan  suggested  by  migrations 
of  buffaloes,  61;  object  sought,  61; 
by  yearlong  grazing,  72;  by  year- 
long protection,  73;  by  deferred 
grazing,  74;  plan  for  deferred  and 
rotation  grazing,  79;  of  bed  grounds, 
120;  of  lands  grazed  each  year  be- 
fore seed  maturity  compared  with 
yearlong  protected  areas,  124;  re- 
lation of  erosion  to,  182,  189;  points 
to  be  considered  in  study  of,  339; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  372, 
375,  386.  . 

Rhamnaccac,  for  study  in  grazmg 
course,  369. 

Rhododendron,  white,  poisonous  spe- 
cies, 274,  (fig.)  276. 

Rhododendron  albijiorum,  poisonous 
species,  274. 

Ricegrass,  mountain,  in  desert  range  of 
Great  Basin,  7;  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  368. 

Rights,  prescriptive,  in  national  forests 
of  European  Governments,  24;  prop- 
erty, for  study  in  grazing  course,  366. 

River-bottom  erosion,   176. 

Rocky  Mountain  region,  the,  5;  lo- 
cation, 8;  rainfall,  8;  native  veg- 
etation, 8;  summer  range,  (fig.)  9; 
pasture  lands,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  365. 

Rodents,  injury  to  tree  reproduction 
by,  199;  destructive  to  pasture, 
for    study    in    grazing   course,   377, 

389- 

Root  system,  of  vegetation  on  high 
mountain  range,  (fig.)  350. 

Rosaceae,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
369- 

Rose  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Roughage,  use  of,  in  reseeding  plan, 
81;  air-drj',  329;  to  be  considered 
in  range  and  pasture  inspection,  335; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  364. 

Rubberweed,  indicator  plant,   129. 

Rubberweed,  Colorado,  poisonous  to 
stock,   276;    habitat,   276. 

Rue,  meadow,  on  range  grazed  an- 
nually, (fig.)  122;  on  protected  plot, 
(fig.)  123;  on  protected  plot  and  on 
unprotected  range,  125;  untouched 
by  stock,  126;  growth  after  burning 
brushland,  226. 

Rumex  Mexicanus,  in  foxglove-sweet 
sage-yarrow    cover,     114;      on    bed 


ground,  (fig.)  121;  indicator  plant, 
-  129. 

Rushes,  in  meadow  type,  312;  in 
grazing  course,  368. 

Rye,  wild,  host  plant,  281. 

Ryegrass,  for  hay  and  pasture  com- 
bined, 132;  habitat,  143;  for  study 
in  grazing  course,   367. 

Ryegrass,  English,  mixture  for  tem- 
porary pasture,  148. 

Ryegrass,  Italian,  in  reseeding  tests, 
41,  44,  45;  amount  to  sow  and  cost, 
53,  144;  moisture  requirements, 
54;    habitat,  143. 

Ryegrass,  perennial,  in  reseeding  tests, 
44,  45;  amount  to  sow  and  cost, 
53,  143;  moisture  requirements, 
54;    habitat,   (fig.)    143. 

Ryegrass,  wheatlike,  host  plant,  (fig.) 
283. 


Sage,  on  winter  desert  range,  (fig.) 
332. 

Sage,  sweet,  in  depletion  of  mixed 
grass  and  weed  stage,  113;  in  sec- 
ond or  late  weed  stage,  113;  habit 
of  growth,  (fig.)  114;  on  range 
grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  pro- 
tected plot,  (fig.)  123;  on  protected 
plot  and  on  unprotected  range,  125; 
indicator  plant,  129,  130. 

Sagebrush,  in  Great  Plains,  6;  in 
desert  range  of  Great  Basin,  7; 
grazing  tyipe,  (fig.)  314,  315. 

Sagebrush,  black,  effect  of  fire  on,  226. 

Salicaceac,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
369- 

Salix,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106;  effect 
of  fire  on,   226. 

Salt,  to  prevent  poisoning,  245;  used 
in   killing   poisonous   plants,    247. 

Saltbush,  on  desert  range  of  Great 
Basin,  7;   in  reseeding  tests,  41. 

Saltbush,  Australian,  in  reseeding  test, 
44;    moisture  requirements,  54. 

Saltgrass,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Salting,  of  stock,  to  prevent  poisoning, 
245;  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
376. 

Salting  stations,  aid  in  deferred  graz- 
ing, 83;  location  of,  a  factor  in 
control  and  distribution  of  li\estock, 
192;  valuable  for  fire-fighting  pur- 
poses, 234;  to  be  shown  on  map, 
334;  to  be  considered  in  range  or 
pasture   inspection,   335. 

Salts,  Epsom,  dose,  for  loco  poisoning, 


INDEX 


415 


254;  Glauber's,  for  ergot  poisoning, 
282. 

Salts,  soil,  received  by  plant,  depend- 
ent on  root  system,  66;  essential 
to  plant  growth,   172. 

Sambitcus,  in   browse   type,  (fig.)  315. 

Sampson,  Arthur  W.,  reseeding  of 
mountain  lands,  43;  effect  of  re- 
moving herbage  several  times  in  a 
season,  63;  study  of  effect  of  graz- 
ing on  timber  reproduction,  198; 
study  of  effects  of  sheep  and  cattle 
grazing  on  aspen  reproduction,  206; 
observations  of  development  of  plant 
cover  after  fires,  226;  intensive  study 
of  sample  plots,  mapping,  and  sum- 
marizing data,  340. 

Sandbur,  mechanically  injurious,   284. 

Santa  Rita  Range  Reserve,  reseeding 
studies  on,  41;  acreage  required 
per  cow  unit,  331. 

Saturation  of  eroded  and  noneroded 
soil,    184. 

Schools,  for  professional  training  in 
grazing,   390. 

Scribner,  F.  Lamson-,  on  Canada  blue- 
grass,    135. 

Scroplndariaceae,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Second  or  late  weed  stage,  108,  113; 
foxglove-yarrow-sweet  sage  type, 
113;  dominant  plants,  (fig.)  114; 
destruction  of,  114;  value  as  for- 
age, 115;  area  surrounding  bed 
ground,  119,  (fig.)  120;  indicator 
plants,  129;  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  374. 

Secretary  of  Agriculture,  letter  to 
Forester,   17. 

Sedge,  scattering  and  planting  of  seed, 
67;  in  meadow  type,  312;  in  grazing 
course,  368. 

Sedge,  broom,  withstands  fire,  224. 

Seed,  amount  and  cost  per  acre,  52, 
53;  collecting,  of  native  pasture 
plants,  57;  viability  of,  57;  pro- 
duction, 66;  scattering  and  plant- 
ing, 67;  essentials  of,  164;  how  to 
test,  165;  how  to  obtain  good,  165; 
collecting  and  cost  of,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  372. 

Seed  habits,  of  annual  plants,  74;  of 
plants  of  first  or  early  weed  stage, 
irs;  of  Kentucky  bluegrass,  134; 
of  Bermudagrass,  r37;  of  timothy, 
142;  of  white  clover,  153;  of  sweet 
clover,  155;  of  bur  clover,  156;  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  367. 

Seeder,  grain,  141. 

Seeding,  season  for,  47;  amount  to  sow 


and  cost,  52,  53;  to  a  mixture,  54; 
where  it  wiU  pay,  55;  to  native 
forage  plants,  56;  to  Kentucky 
bluegrass,  134;  to  Canada  blue- 
grass,  135;  to  Bermudagrass,  137; 
to  Hungarian  bromegrass,  138;  to 
redtop,  140;  to  timothy,  141;  to 
perennial  ryegrass,  143;  to  Sudan- 
grass,  145;  to  meadow  fescue,  147; 
to  Alsike,  152;  to  white  clover,  153; 
to  sweet  clover,  155;  to  bur  clover, 
157;  to  alfalfa,  157;  to  cowpeas, 
158;  to  soybeans,  159;  to  hairy 
vetch,  163;  to  velvet  bean,  163; 
on  terraced  area,  193;  season  for, 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  372. 

Seedlings,  loss  of,  from  natural  agen- 
cies, 67;  destruction  of,  by  grazing, 
67;  mountain  bunchgrass,  (fig.)  68; 
at  end  of  second  season,  (fig.)  69; 
early  in  third  year,  (fig.)  70;  at  end 
of  third  year,  (fig.)  71;  growth 
favored  by  deferred  grazing,  77; 
loss  of,  on  eroded  areas,  189;  dam- 
age to,  by  grazing,  200,  202;  com- 
parative seasonal  injury  to,  201; 
damage  according  to  intensity  of 
grazing,  201;  injury  to,  on  farm 
woodlands,  209;  effect  of  goat  graz- 
ing on,   210. 

Seeds,  winged,  milkweed,  273. 

Seepage,   meaning  of,   298. 

Seeps,  distinguished  from  springs,  298; 
how  to  improve,  298. 

Sego,  poison,  name  for  death  camas,  261. 

Senecio,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106. 

Senecio  Colitmbianus,  indicator  plant, 
129. 

Senna,  belonging  to  legumes,  151. 

Sensitive-plant,  belonging  to  legumes, 
151- 

Serviceberry,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106; 
effect  of  fire  on,  226. 

Shadscale,  on  desert  range  of  Great 
Basin,  6;  on  winter  desert  range, 
(fig-)  332. 

Shasta  National  Forest,  study  of  effect 
of  grazing  on  timber  reproduction 
on,  198. 

Sheep,  grazing  on  topical  desert 
range,  (fig.)  7;  thrive  on  winter 
annual  plants,  8;  grazing  on  alpine 
fir  t>'pe  of  National  Forest,  (fig.) 
19;  number  grazed  on  National 
Forests,  21;  increase  on  National 
Forests  from  1909  to  1919,  22;  ex- 
cluded from  ranges,  23;  used  to 
trample  in  seed,  50;  injury  to  yel- 
lew  pine  reproduction  in  Arizona 
and    New    Mexico,    202;     effect    of 


4i6 


INDEX 


browsing  on  reproduction  of  aspen, 
206,  212;  on  protected  aspen  land, 
(fig.)  207;  remnants  of  aspen  sprouts, 
(fig.)  208;  number  grazed  on  Na- 
tional Forests  in  1921,  232;  losses  due 
to  poisoning,  241 ;  driving  and  herd- 
ing, 247;  characteristic  symptoms 
of  poisoning  by  death  camas,  (fig.) 
264;  losses  from  water  hemlock, 
265;  losses  from  lupine,  (fig.)  268; 
water  requirements,  296;  best  land 
for  grazing,  355;  forage  preferences 
of,  for  study  in  grazing  course,  367; 
forage  requirements  of,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  371,  387;  manage- 
ment of,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
379;  cost  of  production,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  382;  on  winter  range, 
study  of,  in  grazing  course,  388. 

Sheep-shooting  associations,  14. 

Sheet  erosion,  176;  due  to  overgraz- 
ing,  (fig.)    183. 

Shepherd 's-purse,  growth  after  burn- 
ing brushland,  226. 

"Shoestring  gullies,"  176;  on  seeded 
terrace,  (fig.)   194. 

Silage,  supplemental  feed,  335;  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  387. 

Silt,  in  reservoirs,  303. 

Silvics,  important  forestry  subject,  390. 

Silviculture,  important  forestry  sub- 
ject, 390. 

Silanion,   mechanically  injurious,   286. 

Slag,  basic,  as  fertilizer,  99. 

Slope,  steepness  of,  factor  in  erosion, 
177- 

Smuts,  poisonous  to  livestock,   243. 

Snakeroot,  name  for  water  hemlock, 
264. 

Snakeweed,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106; 
name  for  water  hemlock,  264. 

Sneezevveed,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106; 
indicator  plant,  129;  harmful  to 
sheep,  245;  method  of  eradicating, 
247. 

Sneezeweed,  western,  habitat  and  de- 
scription, 277;  (fig.)  278;  poison- 
ous to  stock,  277. 

Snow,  melting,  factor  in  erosion,  177, 
180. 

Snowberry,   sign   of  overgrazing,    106. 

Soap  plant,  name  for  death  camas, 
261. 

Sod.  efiFect  of  harrowing  and  disking, 
95- 

Sodgrasses,  withstand  early  grazing, 
88;  on  permanent  pasture,  88; 
form  of  growth,  go;  typical  form, 
(fig.)  92;  cause  of  decline  in  j-ield, 
95- 


Sodium  benzoate,  for  larkspur  poi- 
soning,  258. 

Sodium  nitrate,  as  fertilizer,   100. 

Soil,  in  seeding  tests,  41,  44;  lack  of 
treatment  of,  cause  of  failure  of 
seeding  tests,  48;  fertile,  for  seed- 
ing to  cultivated  forage  plants,  55; 
loosened  by  harrowing  or  plowing, 
57;  hard-packed,  loss  of  seedlings 
on,  67;  fertility,  requires  good  pas- 
ture feed,  86;  fertile,  essential  for 
forage  production,  88;  alluvial,  for 
pasture  land,  88;  fertility,  main- 
tained on  permanent  pasture,  88; 
texture  changed  by  injudicious  graz- 
ing, 89;  acid,  corrected  by  lime,  99; 
needs  fertilizers,  99;  fertility,  main- 
tained by  fattening  cattle  or  sheep 
on  the  land,  100;  soft  and  wet, 
bad  for  stock,  100;  depleted,  in- 
dicated by  weeds,  loi;  relation  of,  to 
forage  production,  106,  113;  of  first 
or  early  weed  stage,  115;  require- 
ments of  forage  plants,  132;  for 
Kentucky  bluegrass,  133;  for  Can- 
ada bluegrass,  135;  for  Hungarian 
bromegrass,  139;  for  redtop,  140; 
for  timothy,  141;  for  Johnsongrass, 
144;  for  Sudangrass,  145;  infertile, 
grass  mixture  for,  149;  efi'ect  of 
erosion  on,  171,  174;  t>'pe  of,  factor 
in  erosion,  177;  typesof,  178;  removal 
of,  by  wind,  (fig.)  181;  eroded  and 
nonerodcd,  study  of,  in  Wasatch 
Mountains,  183,  184;  loose,  wet,  bad 
effects  of  trampling  on,  192;  wash- 
ing, prevented  by  vegetative  cover, 
194;  enriched  by  decomposition 
of  vegetation,  221;  burning  de- 
structive to,  222,  229,  230;  problem 
of  South,  to  maintain  organic  matter 
of,  223;  effect  of  crown  fires  on,  234; 
depletion,  caused  by  excessive  graz- 
ing, 235;  eroded  and  noneroded, 
plant  foods  and  forage  production 
in,  in  study  course,  375. 

Solidago,  growth  after  burning  brush- 
land,  226. 

Solomon's-seal,  false,  indicator  plant, 
129. 

Sophia  incisa,  in  first  or  early  weed 
stage,  lis,  (%■)  116;  on  eroded 
and  on  noneroded  pasture,  (fig.)  118; 
on  bed  ground,  (fig.)  121;  on  range 
grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  pro- 
tected plot,  (fig.)  123;  indicator 
plant,  1 28;   on  chart  plot,  (fig.)  342. 

Sorghum,  introduced  from  Old  World, 
55;  growing  of,  to  eradicate  Ber- 
mudagrass,  136. 


INDEX 


417 


Southwest,  the,  5;  location,  8;  veg- 
etation, 8;  pasture  lands,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  365;  investiga- 
tions in,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
376- 

Soybean,  cultivated  pasture  plant, 
151;  habitat,  159;  habit  of  growth, 
159,  (fig.)  160;   value,  159. 

Sparhawk,  W.  N.,  studies  on  Payette 
National  Forest,  200. 

Specimens,  collection  of,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  370. 

Spessart  Mountains,  forest  privileges, 

Sporoholus,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Spotted  parsley,  name  for  water  hem- 
lock, 264. 

Spraying,    to   eradicate   larkspur,    260. 

Springs,  distinguished  from  seeps,  298; 
improving  and  protecting,  298,  (fig.) 
299. 

Spruce,   for  troughs,   300. 

Spruce-fir,  type  of  summer  range, 
study  of  soil  in,  183;  young  cow 
poisoned  by  larkspur  in  spruce-fir 
type,  (fig.)  246;  natural-type  unit, 
study  of,  in  grazing  course,  385. 

Squirrel  food,  name  for  death  camas, 
261. 

Squirrels,  ground,  study  of,  in  grazing 
course,  377. 

Stadia,  used  in  field  work,  319,  320. 

Staggerbush,  poisonous  species  of  "lau- 
rel,"  274. 

Staking,  of  chart  plot,  353;  plan  for 
permanent  sample  plots,   (fig.)   353. 

State  and  private  lands,  leasing  of,  30; 
in  Texas,  30;  in  Wyoming,  31;  Nor- 
thern Pacific  Railroad  Company,  31. 

Steers,  feeding  grain  ration  to,  96. 

Stipa,  mechanically  injurious,  286; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  368. 

Slipa  comala,  injurious  to  stock,  288; 
description,   288. 

Slipa  minor,  in  mixed  grass  and  weed 
stage,  1 08 ;  on  eroded  and  on  noneroded 
pasture  (fig.)  118;  on  range  grazed 
annually  (fig.)  122;  on  protected 
plot  (fig.)  123;  indicator  plant,  129. 

Slipa  spartea,  injurious  species,  288; 
description,  288. 

Stock,  number  to  graze  on  nonsod 
pasture,  96;  driving  and  herding, 
247;  factors  determining  number 
and  distribution,  311. 

Stock  trails,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106; 
indicator  plants  on,  128;  injury  by 
sheep  grazing  confined  to,  199; 
factor  in  fire  control,  234. 


Stocker  cattle,  grazing  on  nonsod 
pasture,   97. 

Stocking,  factors  affecting,  study  of, 
in  grazing  course,   365. 

Strip  plots,  transects  and  bisects,  351. 

Stripper,  comb  seed,  for  collecting 
seed,  (fig.)   56,  57. 

Strychnine,  for  loco  poisoning,  254; 
for    larkspur    poisoning,    258.     ^ 

Strychnine  sulphate,  for  larkspur  poi- 
soning, 258. 

Sudangrass,  for  hay  and  pasture  com- 
bined, 132;  habit  of  growth,  144, 
(fig.)  145;  seeding,  145;  value  for 
hay,    145. 

Sugar  pine,  damage  to,  by  grazing,  199. 

Sundial,  name  for  lupine,  266. 

Sunilower  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,   369. 

Supplemental  feed,  provided  under 
leasing  system,  34;  to  be  consid- 
ered in  pasture  inspection,  335;  study 
of,  in  grazing  course,  387. 

Surface  fire,   233. 

Swales,  developing  water  supply  of,  299. 

Swamps,  developing  water  supply  of, 
299. 

Sweden,  home  of  Alsike  clover,  152. 

Symphoricarpos,  sign  of  overgrazing, 
106. 

Symptoms,  of  loco  poisoning,  252; 
of  larkspur  poisoning,  257;  of  death 
camas  poisoning,  263;  of  water 
hemlock  poisoning,  265;  of  lupine 
poisoning,  268;  summary  of,  269;  of 
"laurel"  poisoning,  275;  of  sneeze- 
weed  poisoning,  278;  of  ergot  poison- 
ing, 281;  of  ily  agaric  poisoning,  283; 
of  death  cup  poisoning,  284;  of 
mechanical  injury  by  grasses,  286, 
288;   for  study  in  grazing  course,  370. 

Syringe,  Quitman,  for  hypodermic  in- 
jections, 258. 


Tapes,  boundary,  for  charting  plots, 
343;  sample  plot  steel  guide,  (fig.) 
345;  quadrat,  one  meter  in  length, 
on  denuded  plots,  349;  special,  for 
mapping  transects  and  bisects,  351; 
special  sample-plot  guide,  351,  (fig.) 
352. 

Tar  weed,  in  first  or  early  weed  stage, 
(fig.)  116;    indicator  plant,  128. 

Taxonomy,  auxiliary  subject  in  study 
of  pasture  management,  361. 

Temperature,  factor  in  forage  growth, 
5;  study  of,  included  in  course  in 
meteorology,  363. 


4i8 


INDEX 


Temporary  pasture,  88;  grass  mixture 
for,   148. 

Tenants,  number  occupying  farms,  210. 

Terrace  drag,  used  in  terracing  to 
check  erosion,  (fig.)   193. 

Terracing,  to  check  erosion,  192;  ter- 
race seeded  to  mountain  brome- 
grass,    (fig.)    194. 

Tests,  reseeding,  40,  41;  result  of, 
45,  (fig.)  47;  causes  of  failure,  48 
yearlong  protection  of  pasture,  73 
deferred  grazing  on  winter  ranges, 
80;  methods  of  cropping  and  treat- 
ing bluegrass  pasture,  93. 

Texas,  leasing  system,  30;  use  of  wells 
in  Panhandle,  304;  leasing  system, 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  366. 

Thaliclrum,  untouched  by  stock,  126; 
growth  after  burning  brushland, 
226. 

Tholiclnim  Fcndleri,  on  range  grazed 
annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  protected 
plot,  (fig.)   123. 

Theodolite,  used  in  field  work,  320. 

Thornber,  J.  J.,  tests  in  seeding  native 
forage  plants,   40. 

Three-awn  grasses,  in  Great  Plains,  6; 
injurious  species  286,  288;  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  368. 

Thresher,  grain,  142. 

Ticks,  to  be  considered  in  study  of 
entomology,  362. 

Timber,  effects  of  grazing  on  repro- 
duction, 198;  factors  that  deter- 
mine extent  of  damage  to,  204;  on 
farm  woodlands,  209;  effects  of  goat 
grazing  on,  210;  value  of,  on  moun- 
tain range,  228;  deterrent  effect  on 
erosion,  229;  factor  in  determining 
adaptability  of  range  to  stock,  311. 

Timber  reconnaissance,  aid  in  graz- 
ing reconnaissance,  311;  map  for, 
318;  compared  with  grazing  re- 
connaissance, 321. 

Timbered  areas,  grazing  type,  315, 
(fig.)  316. 

Timbcrlands,  grazing  on,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  375. 

Timothy,  area  of  growth,  5;  in  re- 
seeding  tests,  41,  43,  44,  4.S,  47;  ele- 
vational  Hmitations,  50;  relation  of 
yield  to  elevation,  (fig.)  51;  perma- 
nency of  yield,  52;  amount  to  sow  and 
cost,  s:i;  moisture  requirements,  54; 
mi.xed  seeding,  54,  141;  introduced 
from  Old  World,  55;  on  permanent 
pasture,  88;  period  of  yield,  90; 
for  hay  and  pasture  combined,  132, 
141;  origin  of  name,  140;  habits 
of  growth,   (fig.)    141;    seed  habits, 


142;  in  mixtures,  148;  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  368. 

Topography,  factor  in  erosion,  177; 
factor  in  extent  of  damage  to  timber 
reproduction,  204;  factor  in  con- 
trol of  watering  places,  295;  factor 
in  grazing  reconnaissance,  308,  311; 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  371, 
375,  376. 

Toxicology,  definition  of  term,  242. 

Trampling,  of  seed,  by  sheep,  45,  50; 
timothy,  not  readily  injured  by,  52; 
injury  to  newly  seeded  lands  by,  55; 
injury  to  plant  roots  by,  72;  effect 
of,  on  timber  reproduction,  199, 
200,  20I,  202,  235;  on  farm  wood- 
lands, 209;  decreases  danger  from 
fire,    233;     factor    in    revegetation, 

349- 
Transects,   form  of  sample  plot,   351. 
Transit,  used  in  field  work,  320. 
Traverse-sketching,     method     of     ob- 
taining  forage  data,   318,  319,  320. 
Triangulation,     method    of    obtaining 

forage  data,  318,  320. 
Trifolium,  species  and  habitat,   152. 
Trifoliiim  hybridum,  in  reseeding  tests, 

44;   habit  of  growth,  152,  (fig.)  153; 

introduced  into  United  States,  152; 

seeding,  152. 
Trifolium    incarnatum,    value   as   hay, 

152- 
Trifolium  pratense,  in  reseeding  tests, 

44;    value  as  hay,  152. 
Trifolium    repens,    in    reseeding    tests, 

44;    habit  of  growth,  153;    seeding, 

153- 

Trisetum,  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 

Trisetum,  spiked,  on  range  grazed 
annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  protected 
plot,  (fig.)  123;  on  protected  plot 
and  on  unprotected  range,  125;  indi- 
cator plant,   130. 

Trisetum  spicatutn,  on  range  grazed 
annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  protected 
plot,  (fig.)  123;  indicator  plant,  130; 
on  chart  plot,  (fig.)  342. 

Troughs,  location  of,  290;  kinds  of, 
300;    foundation  of,  301. 

Tusayan  National  Forest,  cost  of  res- 
ervoirs on,  304. 

T>'pe  stages  of  native  pasture  vegeta- 
tion, 107. 


U 


Umbelliferae,  embraces  poisonous  spe- 
cies, 243;  for  study  in  grazing  course, 
368. 


INDEX 


419 


Unimproved  land,  in  the  United  States, 
location  and  extent,  4. 

United  States,  area  of,  4. 

Utah,  cattle  and  sheep  grazed  under 
permit,  21;  investigations  in,  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  376. 


Vacciniaceae,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Vagnera  stellata,  indicator  plant,   129. 

Valerian  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,   369. 

Valerianaceae,  far  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Vegetative  cover,  on  range  grazed 
annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  plot  pro- 
tected from  grazing,  (fig.)  123, 
(table)  125;  relation  to  erosion, 
173;  factor  in  erosion,  177,  179, 
182;  establishment  of,  a  difficult 
task,  189;  functions  of  vegetation 
that  remains  on  ground  at  end  of 
season,  221;  replacement  after  fire, 
226;     study   of,    in   grazing   course, 

375- 

Vegetative  degeneration,  117. 

Vegetative   progression,    117. 

Vetch,  introduced  from  Old  World,  55; 
cultivated  pasture  plant,  151;  spe- 
cies, 159. 

Vetch,  common  or  spring,  one  of  cul- 
tivated species,  159;  characteristics, 
163. 

Vetch,  hairy  or  sand,  one  of  culti- 
vated species,  159;  characteristics, 
(fig.)  161,  162;  habitat,  162;  seed- 
ing,   163;    value,    163. 

Vetch,  narrow-leaved  or  Augusta,  one 
of  cultivated  species,   159;    habitat. 

Veterinary  science,  auxiliary  subject 
in  study  of  pasture  management, 
362;    apphcation  of,  363. 

Viabilit}^  of  seed  of  native  pasture 
plants,  57;  depends  on  vigor  of 
plants,  66;  of  Kentucky  bluegrass, 
134;  essential  of  good  seed,  165; 
how  to  test,  165;  determined  by 
denuded-plot  method,  349. 

Vicia,  species,   159. 

Vicia  angusttfolia,  one  of  cultivated 
species,  159. 

Vicia  saliva,  one  of  cultivated  species, 

159- 
Vicia  villosa,  one  of  cultivated  species, 

159,    (fig.)    161. 
Vigna    Sinensis,    field    of,    (fig.)    158; 

habit  of  growth,  158. 


Viola  linguaefolia,  in  destruction  of 
foxglove-sweet  sage-yarrow  cover, 
114;  on  bed  ground,  (fig.)  121;  on 
range  grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122; 
on  protected  plot,  (fig.)  123;  in- 
dicator plant,  129;  on  chart  plot, 
(fig.)  342. 

Violet,  dog's-tooth,  annual  plant,  324. 

Violet,  tongue-leaved,  in  foxglove- 
sweet  sage-yarrow  cover,  114;  on 
bed  ground,  (fig.)  121;  on  range 
grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  pro- 
tected plot,  (fig.)  123;  on  protected 
plot  and  on  unprotected  range,  125; 
indicator  plant,  129. 

Virginia,  study  of  methods  of  cropping 
and  treating  bluegrass  pastures,  93. 


W 


Wasatch  Mountains,  height,  7;  re- 
seeding  tests,  45;  collecting  seed, 
57;  harvesting  experiments,  63; 
study  of  principles  of  plant  suc- 
cession, 107;  study  of  erosion  in, 
177;  study  of  rainstorms  in,  179; 
study  of  soil  types  in,  183;  study 
of  larkspur  eradication  in,  259. 

Washington,  cattle  and  sheep  grazed 
under  permit,  21;  study  of  effect 
of  grazing  on  timber  reproduction, 
198;  investigations  in,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  376. 

Waste   land,  grazing  type,   315,   (fig.) 

Water,  in  Great  Plains,  6;  faciUties 
improved  by  leasing  system,  33; 
ways  of  providing  supply  of,  78; 
aid  in  deferred  grazing,  83;  weeds, 
heavy  users  of,  loi;  necessity  of, 
in  the  West,  172;  water  erosion,  due 
to  overgrazing,  (fig.)  183;  percen- 
ta'ge  of  "nonavailable, "  in  eroded 
and  in  noneroded  soil,  184;  require- 
ments for  selected  plants  per  unit 
dry  weight  on  eroded  and  on  non- 
eroded  soil,  186;  aid  in  eliminating 
poisonous  substances,  246;  factor 
in  utilizing  forage  crop,  295;  avail- 
ability of,  295;  requirements  of 
stock,  296;  distribution  of,  296; 
springs  and  seeps,  298;  swamps, 
299;  wells,  304;  factor  in  grazing 
reconnaissance,  311;  demand  for 
forage  great  where  supply  of,  is 
ample,  355;  effect  of,  on  stocking, 
for  study  in  grazing  course,  365, 
371;  development  of,  for  study  in 
grazing  course,  375. 

Water   hemlock,   poisonous    to    stock. 


420 


INDEX 


243;  poison  in  roots,  244;  method 
of  eradicating,  247;  description, 
264,  (fig.  frontis.);  distribution  and 
habitat,  264;  losses  from,  265; 
poisonous  parts,  265;  s>Tnptoms  of 
poisoning,  265;  remedies,  266;  sum- 
mary of  symptoms  and  remedies, 
270. 

Watering  places,  distance  between, 
factor  in  stocking,  6;  factor  in  fire 
control,  234;  control  over,  295; 
distribution  of,  296;  overgrazing 
and  trampHng  near,  (fig.)  297; 
natural,  298;  artificial,  302;  factor 
in  determining  number  and  distri- 
bution of  stock,  311;  study  of,  in 
grazing  course,  375. 

Watersheds,  creation  of  National  For- 
ests to  protect  and  improve,  18,  27; 
injury  to,  by  grazing,  105,  197;  of  Na- 
tional Forests,  172;  value  of  vegeta- 
tive cover  on  watersheds  contrib- 
uting to  Ohio  River,  174;  protec- 
tion of,  factor  in  determining  adap- 
tability of  range  to  stock,  311; 
study  of,  in  grazing  course,  378. 

"Weed,  grazing  type,  312,  (fig.)  314. 

Weeds,  annual  growth  in  United 
States,  100;  invasion  of  farm  pas- 
ture by  asters,  (fig.)  loi;  control 
of,  loi;  indicators  of  overgrazing, 
107;  noxious,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  371;  control  of,  for  study 
in  grazing  course,  374. 

Wells,  essential  features,  304;  in  Pan- 
handle of  Texas,  304. 

Wheat,  Kubanka,  growth  on  eroded 
and  on  noneroded  soil,  184;  relative 
water  requirements,  (fig.)  186;  sum- 
mary of  study,  (fig.)  188. 

Wheatgrass,  scattering  and  planting 
of  seed,  67;  in  climax  herbaceous 
cover,  108;  height  growth  and  root 
system,  (fig.)  log;  in  mixed  grass 
and  weed  stage,  in;  in  competition 
with  yellowbrush,  (fig.)  112;  for 
study  in  grazing  course,  367. 

Wheatgrass,  blue  bunch,  height  and 
root  system,  (fig.)  109;  indicator 
plant,  130. 

Wheatgrass  cover,  climax  herbaceous 
stage,  107;  destruction  of,  108; 
value  as  forage,  in. 

Wheatgrass,  Scribner's,  indicator  plant, 
129. 

Wheatgrpss,  slender,  in  reseeding  tests, 
43;  amount  to  sow  and  cost,  53; 
in  arid  regions,  89;  on  eroded  and 
on  noneroded  pasture,  (fig.)  118; 
on  range  grazed  annually,  (fig.)  122; 


on  protected  piot,  (fig.)  123;  on  pro- 
tected plot  and  on  unprotected  range, 
125;  indicator  plant,  130. 

\\'heatgrass,  small,  height  and  root 
system,  (fig.)  109;  competition  with 
yellowbrush,  (fig.)  112;  indicator 
plant,  130;  open  grassland  com- 
posed of,  (fig.)  313. 

Wheatgrass,  violet,  collecting  seed  of, 
57;  effect  of  cropping,  (figs.)  65; 
indicator  plant,  130. 

White  fir,  damage  to,  by  grazing,  199. 

Wild  cat,  study  of,  in  grazing  course, 
383. 

Willow,  sign  of  overgrazing,  106; 
effect  of  fire  on,  226. 

Willow  family,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  369. 

Wind,  factor  in  erosion,  177,  181; 
erosion  due  to  overgrazing,  (fig.) 
183. 

Windmill,  water  provided  by  use  of, 
78;    for  wells,  304. 

Wiregrass,    withstands    fire,   224,   237. 

Wolf,  study  of,  in  grazing  course,  383. 

Woodland,  grazing  on,  197;  grazing 
farm,  208;  grazing  t>'pe,  (fig.)  316, 
317;  pasture,  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  364,  376. 

Wooton,  E.  O.,  tests  in  seeding  native 
forage  plants,  40. 

Worms,  stomach,  in  sheep  manure, 
100. 

Wyoming,  cattle  and  sheep  grazed 
under  permit,  21;  leasing  system, 
31;  leasing  system,  for  study  in 
grazing   course,   366. 


Xylorrhiza  Parryi,  poisonous  to  stock, 
275,    (fig.)    277. 


Yarrow,  in  second  or  late  weed  stage, 
113;  habit  of  growth,  (fig.)  114; 
on  eroded  and  on  noneroded  pas- 
ture, (fig.)  118;  on  range  grazed 
annually,  (fig.)  122;  on  protected 
plot,  (fig.)  123;  on  protected  plot 
and  on  unprotected  range,  125;  in- 
dicator plant,  129,  130;  in  weed 
type,  (fig.)  314- 

Yellowbrush,  in  destruction  of  wheat- 
grass  cover,  108;  in  mixed  grass 
and  weed  stage,  (fig.)  no,  in;  in 
competition  with  wheatgrass,  (fig.) 
112;     indicator   plant,    129. 

Yellow  pine,  tjpe  of  National  Forest, 


INDEX 


421 


moderate  grazing  and  timber  pro- 
duction on,  (fig.)  19;  on  cattle 
range  moderately  grazed,  (fig.)  24; 
forage  on,  198;  damage  to,  by  graz- 
ing, 199;  tree  severely  browsed  by 
sheep,  (fig.)  201;  effect  of  grazing 
on  reproduction  in  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico,  202;  injury  by  cattle 
browsing,  (fig.)  203;  study  of  graz- 
ing damage  on  Coconino  National 
Forest,  204;  effect  of  goat  grazing 
on,  210;   used  for  troughs,  300. 

Yellow  pine-oak,  natural-type  unit, 
study  of,  in  grazing  course,  385. 

Yellowstone  Park  Reserve,  first  For- 
est Reserve  created,  17. 


Zones,  of  vegetation  surrounding  bed 
ground     119,     (fig.)    120;     Transi- 


tion, Canadian,  and  Hudsonian, 
study  of,  in  grazing  course,  385. 

Zoology,  auxiliary  subject  in  study  of 
pasture  management,  361;  appli- 
cation of,  362. 

Zygadenus,  species  of  poisonous  plants, 
242;  description,  261;  distribution 
and  habitat,  261;  losses  due  to,  262; 
poisonous  parts,  262;  amount  re- 
quired to  cause  death.  263;  symp- 
toms of  poisoning,  263;  remedies, 
263;  characteristic  sheep  poisoning, 
(fig.)  264;  for  study  in  grazing 
course,  370. 

Zygadenus  elegans,  poisonous  species, 
261,  (fig.  frontis.). 

Zygadenus  gramineus,  poisonous  species, 
261. 

Zygadenus  paniculatus,  poisonous  spe- 
cies, 261. 

Zygadenus  venenosus,  poisonous  spe- 
cies, 261. 


